A Journey into African Spirituality: An Exploration of Its Key Values, Traditions, and Healing Methodologies

Abstract

This paper explores African spirituality by examining its core values, traditions, and healing methodologies. Employing a qualitative research design and ethnographic method, data were collected through individual interviews with twelve parents (Sample 1) and a focus group discussion with fifteen community members and traditional leaders (Sample 2) in a deeply rural African community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Participants were recruited with the assistance of community elders for their in-depth knowledge of this faith tradition. Thematic analysis generated three overarching themes: understanding African spirituality; spiritual beliefs and practices within African spirituality; and healing methodologies. The findings reveal a complex system of interconnected beliefs and practices that shape African communal life, highlighting the role of spiritual rituals in sustaining the well-being of families and communities.

1. Introduction

African spirituality is a holistic philosophy rooted in Africa’s historical, cultural, and religious heritage (Rahmat et al. 2022). It is interwoven with traditional folktales, religious beliefs, rituals, and cultural values (Ackah et al. 2018). Research by Knoetze (2019, p. 1) indicates that African Traditional Religion (ATR) is characterised by a strong connection to the environment, belief in mystical beings, creation myths, and devotion to cultural rituals and traditions. Ephirim-Donkor (2021) argues that African spirituality significantly shapes the worldviews and behaviours of rural families in particular, nurturing a profound link between the visible and invisible realms in this context. Within ATR, spiritual knowledge, beliefs, and practices are passed down through generations, and ancestors are regarded as rich sources of wisdom, reflecting their importance during times of personal and family adversity. Lebaka (2019) therefore concludes that African spirituality, particularly its traditional beliefs and practices, shape the daily lives of African families, providing a vital source of strength and healing when families face crises.

Scholarly writing on African spirituality remains limited, as it is largely regarded as a philosophy transmitted orally from one generation to the next (Mbiti 2015). In the absence of codified sacred texts, ATR is often described as a way of life in which the pursuit of personal and collective well-being is deeply woven into everyday experience (Oyekan 2021). According to Singh and Bhagwan (2020), African spirituality is underpinned by religious beliefs, practices, ceremonies and festivals, visits to cultural places of worship, values and norms, as well as guidance from religious leaders. Kobe (2021) notes that, as a character strength, African spirituality entails the belief in a dimension of life beyond human understanding, which involves the divine presence of ancestral spirits.

Brown et al. (2021) assert that the strength of African spirituality lies in its multi-dimensional nature, encompassing ancestral connections, the formation of life purpose, attentiveness to one’s calling, belief in a supreme God, the use of traditional medicine, and practices that engage the transcendent.

Von Kapff (2012) maintains that African spirituality reflects a striving toward the wholeness of life, compelling adherents to seek balance and harmony in all aspects of their lives. For Bhagwan (2017), the essence of African spirituality is “what growth and healing is all about”. Chiorazzi (2015) contends that Africans are engaged in continuous reflection and reconstruction, endeavouring to align their lives with traditional beliefs and values. Nolte and Downing (2019) add that African spirituality shapes Africans’ thinking, supports their capacity to navigate obstacles, and informs identity formation, behavioural patterns and sound decision-making in tumultuous circumstances. Consequently, African religion and spirituality are pivotal considerations within the milieu of African families and their communities (Bhagwan 2017). Nolte and Downing (2019) state that the living values embedded in African spirituality help preserve individual, family, and community well-being. According to Mabovula (2011), this is achieved by ensuring that children and young people experience positive well-being and that community members support one another, guided by the wisdom of community elders.

According to Bhengu (2010), a further central tenet of ATR is Ubuntu, a philosophy that stresses interconnectedness, compassion, and a shared humanity that binds people together. It fosters community harmony and care for the most vulnerable. Ubuntu extends beyond a philosophical concept; it is a way of life that permeates many aspects of African societies, shaping how people interact, communicate, and treat one another. It is deeply embedded in the cultural and social fabric of diverse African communities. As a traditional African philosophy, Ubuntu enables individuals, families, and communities to value and understand one another and their collective role in advancing the welfare of all. Ubuntu is therefore predicated on the notion that “each individual’s humanity is through his/her relationship with others and theirs in turn through recognition of the individual’s humanity” (Mabovula 2011; Mabvurira 2020).

Drawing on various research studies, Nolte and Downing (2019) conclude that Ubuntu represents a comprehensive ancient African worldview grounded in profound humanity, sharing, caring, respect, compassion, and related ideals. This orientation fosters interconnectedness and promotes a healthy communal life shaped by the spirit of family. Other scholars have noted that Ubuntu embraces cooperation, reciprocity, warmth, empathy, understanding, communication, interaction, and a shared worldview (Dillard and Neal 2020). According to Knoetze (2019), African spirituality is embodied in the behaviour and principles of each individual, becoming intrinsically linked to, and fundamental for, the well-being of the community. Knoetze (2019) further argues that this holistic approach promotes resilience, deepens Ubuntu, strengthens social bonds, and secures the intergenerational transfer of cultural values.

Ubuntu, consequently, plays a crucial role in community development by empowering the “we” to build a more harmonious society that emerges through interconnectedness, support, and collaboration (Kobe 2021; Mabovula 2011). Research by Mabovula (2011) indicates that the potential of Ubuntu lies in the capacity to be human, to respect others, to place the community’s benefit above one’s interests, and to work towards helping others in a spirit of service.

Marumo and Chakale (2018, p. 116) further explain that Ubuntu views humanity as an integral part of the ecosystem, giving rise to communal responsibility to sustain life. Ubuntu’s spirituality is expressed through communal actions and a collective worldview in which individual well-being is bound to the welfare of the community, evident in practices such as welcoming strangers, supporting members in times of loss, engaging in restorative justice and reconciliation, and fostering intergenerational wisdom transfer (Nolte and Downing 2019, p. 9). It also encompasses spiritual dimensions, including a deep connection to nature and ancestors, and a belief in the sacredness of relationships that bind people together (Chaplin 2006). According to Dube and Chisale (2023, p. 435), Inhlambuluko (healing the lineage through truth and reconciliation) is one of the practices that evidences the spirituality of Ubuntu. The latter can therefore be understood as the bedrock of African spirituality (Mabvurira 2016). Mbiti (2018) thus concludes that Africa’s greatest gift to the world has been the social ethic embodied in Ubuntu.

There has been growing attention to deepening the understanding of African spirituality and its significant potential to support and strengthen the lives of rural families and communities. Rural areas increasingly include grandmother-headed and child-headed households. These families face adversities such as poverty, unemployment, financial constraints, teenage pregnancy, and other challenges that damage livelihoods, limiting opportunities to thrive and remain self-sustaining. Scholars have examined African spirituality, exploring the diverse and complex belief systems and practices integral to the cultural heritage of various African societies, and considering how it assists the helping professions to create safe environments for children and families. Little, however, has been written about how rural families and communities utilise African spirituality, thereby justifying the need for this study. Moreover, African spirituality is often overlooked as a means of promoting overall well-being and support that can strengthen and guide family and community life in rural contexts.

This study sought to contribute to scholarship on African spirituality by examining how African spiritual beliefs and practices can strengthen family and community life in rural Ndwedwe. Its objectives were to investigate the African religious and spiritual beliefs and practices of families living in Ndwedwe, to ascertain how these beliefs and practices provide strength and support during adversity, to explore how traditional leaders assist families facing challenges in the community, and to determine which spiritually based activities can be implemented to reconstruct the Ndwedwe community’s living space.

2. Theoretical Framework

This study employed Afrocentricity as its theoretical framework. The concept was developed by Molefi Kete Asante, who first introduced the term in his 1980 book Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change (Thabede 2008, p. 15). Afrocentricity is defined as “literally, placing African ideas at the centre of any analysis that involves African culture and behaviour” (Asante 2020). It positions the African as the central figure in every situation. Asante (2020) notes that the terms “Afrocentric”, “Africentric”, and “African-centred” carry the same meaning: they reflect a quality of thought and behaviour rooted in the cultural image and interests of African people, situating their history, culture, and customs at the centre of analysis.

This framework refers to the view that Africans interpret the world, people, and life from an African perspective, in contrast to non-Africans, or to Africans who feel detached from their African identity (Mazama 2002; Thabede 2008; Chawane 2016, p. 78). Afrocentricity’s explanatory approach encompasses African dance, music, rituals, mythology, literature, and oral histories. Consequently, the Afrocentric framework incorporates elements of African spirituality as essential components of African worldviews (Thabede 2008; Chawane 2016, p. 78). Mazama (2002) regards spirituality and other intuitive methods of acquiring knowledge, along with emotional responses, as complements to rationality within the paradigm, and as grounded in intimate engagement with the cultural and spiritual objects that inform Afrocentric thinking.

According to Mazama (2002), this framework sought to shift the conceptual status of Africans from objects acted upon to subjects who act. In the current study, Afrocentricity is central to re-establishing the processes through which Africans attain spirituality, healing, and strength. Through an Afrocentric approach, African families draw on African spirituality as a healing tool and an effective intervention to strengthen family and community life (Asante 2020). By engaging traditional beliefs, practices, values, music, and dance, African families develop mechanisms that enable them to thrive and cultivate resilience in the face of adversity (Chawane 2016, p. 78).

Afrocentricity shapes African culture, beliefs, and unity of being, defining the way of life for Africans. These values are evident in families who practise African spirituality. Afrocentricity and African spirituality are closely linked (Mazama 2002). The relevance of Afrocentricity renders it an appropriate theoretical frame for the current study. It enables African families to remain rooted in their beliefs, culture, and way of life, with African spirituality serving as a pathway to realise this (Chawane 2016, p. 78).

The

Table 1. Demographic profile.

Pseudonym	Age	Gender	Type of Participant	The Data Collection Method Used
PI (1)	34	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (2)	36	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (3)	32	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (4)	29	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (5)	44	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (6)	42	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (7)	36	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (8)	49	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (9)	41	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (10)	45	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (11)	29	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
PI (12)	30	Female	Family member	Individual interviews
FGD (1)	65	Female	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (2)	82	Female	Community elder	FGD
FGD (3)	64	Female	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (4)	86	Female	Community elder	FGD
FGD (5)	77	Female	Community elder	FGD
FGD (6)	60	Female	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (7)	78	Male	Community elder	FGD
FGD (8)	75	Male	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (9)	69	Male	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (10)	70	Female	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (11)	60	Female	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (12)	65	Female	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (13)	61	Female	Community elder	FGD
FGD (14)	70	Male	Traditional leader	FGD
FGD (15)	82	Female	Community elder	FGD

below presents the demographic profile of the study’s participants.

3. Results

Three main themes and eight sub-themes emerged from the data.

3.1. Theme 1: Understanding African Spirituality

Theme 1 concerns participants’ understandings of African spirituality and its significance in their personal lives. Three sub-themes emerged under Theme 1: (i) the presence of ancestors and unseen spirits, (ii) Ubuntu, and (iii) collective existence within the community.

3.1.1. Sub-Theme 1.1: Presence of Ancestors and Unseen Spirits

This sub-theme highlights the pervasive role of ancestors within African spirituality. Participants described their understanding of African spirituality as intrinsically connected to ancestors and unseen spirits. One participant explained:

“I know African spirituality as believing in and consulting with the ancestors. In my family, we are very traditional people… we also believe in and pray to God… I think praying to God and consulting with our ancestors goes hand in hand. God is our creator, and those who have passed connect us with God… In our culture, we connect with our ancestors using ‘Impepho’ [burning sage] to plead with our ancestors and ask for guidance; we also ask for healing and prosperity… I believe that is what African spirituality is”

PI (9)

“African spirituality is having a sacred connection with unseen spirits… For example, when someone comes to consult me, spirits and my ancestors send me a message. As a result, I always know when someone is coming to consult. Upon introduction, my ancestors and that individual’s ancestors unite and guide me on how to assist the individual. They tell me exactly what to say and what should be done next”.

FGD (11)

Another participant reflected that African spirituality is embodied in the moral values passed down by ancestors, which guide individuals and help prevent harm. As one participant explained:

“African spirituality is knowing that you are not alone; there are people who are with you and watching over you always as you go through every aspect of your life. Those people are our ancestors… It is the oral traditions that have been instilled within us by them to guide us, so that we behave according to the moral standard of African spirituality and do not suffer the consequences”.

PI (5)

3.1.2. Sub-Theme 1.2: Ubuntu

The second sub-theme identifies Ubuntu as a central principle of African spirituality. Mabvurira (2020) explains Ubuntu through the well-known expressions “a person is a person through others” (umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu in IsiZulu) or (Motho ke Motho ka Batho in SeSotho). Participants described their understanding of Ubuntu within the context of African spirituality as follows:

“Ubuntu is to work together. I think African spirituality is exactly that… we build one another in this community. As African people, we know first-hand each other’s struggles and what we go through daily so we can take charge and control the situation and not get out of hand. We will work together to fix that situation”.

FGD (11)

“Ubuntu is about showing compassion and humanity to others. African spirituality embodies that. One cannot believe in African spirituality and not practice Ubuntu… Each one cannot exist without the other. Ubuntu is important in an African community like ours that mostly practises African spirituality. We live by it”.

PI (7)

Another participant stressed that African spirituality extends beyond ancestor reverence, encompassing compassion, empathy, and the active practice of qualities and values fundamental to humankind:

“African spirituality goes beyond respecting ancestors; it is about the practice of Ubuntu and teaching the community how to live with one another, showing grace and empathy to one another. I think that how we act, and the qualities and values embedded in us, show what African spirituality is”.

FGD (8)

3.1.3. Sub-Theme 1.3: Collective Existence Within the Community

Sub-theme 1.3 indicates that collective existence, defined as a person’s unity with their community (Sandlana and Mtetwa 2008), is a significant aspect of African spirituality. Participants articulated this as follows:

“If there’s a death in a family, we come together as neighbours and go to a night vigil. We do a sleepover, which is a sign of showing support among us as women. That’s what I think African spirituality is: sympathising with each other and making sure that, as people who share the same beliefs, we never go through trials and tribulations alone but, together, work and help one another”.

FGD (15)

“If you perform a ceremony without inviting people from the community or your neighbours, it is believed the ceremony won’t be recognised by the ancestors. In African spirituality, you cannot exist alone. It is impossible; it is important to be communal”.

PI (4)

Another participant emphasised African spirituality is underpinned by harmonious relationships, which embody the spirit of sharing within the community. The participant noted:

“African spirituality is about living in harmony with people with whom you share the same beliefs and practices. In this community, we perform rituals and traditions, and have ceremonies… It is tradition that you invite people to gather with you during these events. So, when there is a ceremony at home, we invite people to come gather with us, drink traditional beer, and eat meat…”.

PI (3)

African spiritual traditions coalesce into a collective existence through principles of unity and generosity. Participants in the current study shared how this occurs in an African context saying:

“When we are invited, we carry food parcels or even monetary contributions to show support to the family that is doing the ceremony… This is done to lessen the burden because we understand that providing for hundreds of people during a ceremony is not an easy task, and it can strain one financially… all of this is done within African spiritual traditions”.

FGD (2)

3.2. Theme 2: Spiritual Beliefs and Practices That Exist Within African Spirituality

Theme 2 focused on the spiritual beliefs and practices within African spirituality. Sub-theme 2.1 highlighted the protection of kinship networks through sacrificial worship.

3.2.1. Sub-Theme 2.1: Protection of Kinship Networks Through Animal Sacrifices

The protection of kinship networks through animal sacrifices emerged as an important spiritual practice under Theme 2. In the narratives that follow, participants explained that central aspects of African beliefs and practices are expressed through sacrificial worship, reflecting on how these rituals shape their kinship networks as well as their cultural and spiritual life:

“We express our tradition and the continuance of our family name through the tradition of slaughtering animals… We usually slaughter during celebrations and healing ceremonies; this strengthens our bloodline… Attendance from family members is compulsory; otherwise, the ritual or ceremony may not be received well by the ancestors”.

PI (4)

“If a family member does not attend such a ceremony, they should have a valid reason for not attending… An elder will call upon ancestors and communicate with them, explaining why that family member is not present, and apologise on their behalf. This way, the family may not be affected by this or possibly be required to do it again, and that family member may not be affected by this in the long run and suffer consequences”.

FGD (14)

Participants noted that the wearing of “isiphandla”—a protective piece of animal skin—functions as a communal practice that reinforces the interconnectedness of the family. One participant explained:

“We slaughter during every family ceremony or ritual at home; this strengthens our kinship… Once we have done the sacrificial ceremony, we have to wear ‘isiphandla’ on our wrists, which is a piece of cow or goat skin… ‘Isiphandla’ is for our protection, and everyone in our family is obligated to wear it. All family members must be present to do this practice together”.

PI (8)

Families also described the consequences of not adhering to the proper processes of animal sacrifice, noting that such omissions negatively affect the well-being of the entire family:

“If a family does not slaughter during their ceremony, the ancestors do not recognise that ceremony or ritual… the family is then obligated to do the ceremony again, properly this time. If not, consequences are suffered by everyone in the family… to prevent this, the family buys a goat and apologises to the ancestors for attempting to deceive them with a bogus ceremony or ritual… the family must further do a celebratory ceremony that represents a continuance of life and healthy relations”.

FGD (15)

3.2.2. Sub-Theme 2.2: Respect for Authority and Elders

Sub-theme 2.2 highlights respect for elders and authority as a central feature of African spirituality. Families in rural communities often depend on community leaders and family elders for guidance and support (Olupona 2014). The following narratives illustrate how elders and leaders provide oversight and direction in shaping the decisions, beliefs, experiences, and traditions of individuals:

“Elders of the family always lead the way when it comes to family ceremonies or rituals that need to be conducted… Elders are respected and given their position of authority because they are more knowledgeable, and most of the time this means they know the appropriate approach to perform ceremonies and rituals”.

PI (12)

“When elders are absent from a family ceremony or ritual, it can be challenging for the family. In such cases, individuals often seek assistance from a community elder or induna… Elders are known as transmitters of tradition, and they play an extremely important part in families… The majority of the time, elders have direct interaction and connection with the ancestors”.

FGD (4)

“We show respect to the Chief because a rural community is known as ‘isizwe seNkosi,’ which translates to ‘the tribe of the Chief.’ The Chief is the ruler and leader of all the families… The Chief oversees and presides over all affairs affecting families, community practices, and customs. If the Chief is unavailable, the Induna takes his place as his deputy”.

PI (6)

The excerpts below reveal the importance of adhering to spiritual beliefs, practices, guidelines, and authority rules within a community:

“In this community, we honour uNomkhubulwane [Zulu goddess/ Mother Earth]. We gather by the river to plead to the Zulu goddess by creating a garden specifically for her near the river as an offering so that she brings in sufficient rain and blesses our crops so that we can provide for our families and overcome poverty… every community member must do this”.

PI (12)

“Imisombuluko [Mondays] are respected… We honour Umsombuluko because of uNomkhubulwane [Zulu goddess]. If you are caught working, for example, in the fields on a Monday, you may cause suffering for the whole village and therefore must pay a fine, since you put community life at risk. Respecting this day involves avoiding working in the fields or engaging in other activities involving land or nature. Even as traditional healers, we are prohibited from going to the forest to collect herbs. Everyone in this community must respect this day, including leaders”.

FGD (1)

3.2.3. Sub-Theme 2.3: Traditional Stick Fighting

Traditional stick fighting was described as a cultural practice with a unique expression in this community, distinct from its broader historical context:

“Traditional stick fighting has been known as a skill taught to young men to defend themselves and their families… Currently, this tradition is recognised as an African sport or activity for young men in rural communities… If a young man is known as a champion in this, he becomes famous for carrying himself well and usually earns the respect of the community members”.

FGD (8)

Participants regarded traditional stick fighting as a valuable skill that teaches self-defence, fosters respect and community standing, and prepares young men for responsible roles within their families and community. It has also long served as a culturally sanctioned method for resolving disputes among individuals, groups, and clans. Mchunu (2007) notes that the practice developed to cultivate respect and harmony among community rivals. Scholars further argue that stick fighting continues be performed in rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal as a process of socialisation, self-defence, and value formation (Nxumalo 2010, p. 67).

This study identified a close interrelationship between traditional stick fighting and the natural environment. Previous studies reported that regular exposure to green spaces reduces stress, anxiety, and depression (Nxumalo 2010). Coetzee (2000, p. 97) explains that the powerful combination of physical activity and the peaceful surroundings of nature promotes the release of endorphins, which generate feelings of contentment in human beings. Carton and Morrell (2008, p. 79) that traditional stick fighting fosters social connection and community building within various African communities. Similarly, participants indicated that, in the Ndwedwe community, traditional stick fighting is used as an effective, cost-efficient intervention for addressing issues such as gender-based violence and the psychosocial difficulties faced by men in the community:

“Traditional stick fighting is taught to young men to prepare them for responsible roles in their families and community… This activity strengthens young men, and it also teaches them that their strength is equivalent to that of other men’s and should not be used to harm women. We must teach them this so that the statistics of gender-based violence in this community can decline”.

FGD (4)

By instilling values, teachings, and anger management skills through this activity, community elders, traditional leaders, and trainers play a formative role in shaping the development of young men while offering much-needed and culturally appropriate support. Traditional stick fighting is thus presented as a culturally grounded practice that strengthens young men both physically and spiritually, while also benefiting their families and the wider community.

3.2.4. Sub-Theme 2.4: Prayer and Spiritual Water

Sub-theme 2.3 highlights the role of prayer and spiritual water. Bradley (2012) notes that prayer and spiritual water symbolise spiritual cleansing, renewal, clarity, reflection, and the gift of life. In the excerpts below, participants reflect on these aspects, emphasising the significance of prayer and spiritual water within the African spiritual worldview:

“We go to the waterfall and pray there. In this community, the majority of people rely on prayers… The waterfall is a very spiritual and powerful place; it symbolises the process of letting go of negative thoughts, getting rid of misfortune, cleansing, and the continuous flow of energy and life. After washing up and praying, you feel as though a huge weight has been lifted off your shoulders, and you feel lighter and much better”.

PI (3)

“Going to the waterfall helped me in my spiritual journey; there have been experiences when I had to deal with so much that my faith shifted… During a difficult time in my life, a neighbour convinced me to accompany her to a waterfall. Since then, we have been meeting in groups to pray by the waterfall. This happens at least twice a year”.

PI (1)

“As community members, we pray to uNomkhubulwane Zulu spiritual princess after ploughing her garden. We pray for blessings and prosperity; we believe she resides in the river, which is why we plough and pray near the river… she does not only bless us with rain, but she also blesses community women with fertility and blesses the births”.

PI (12)

The following excerpts reflect how spiritual leaders use spiritual practices to support families in an African context:

“I am a prophet. People come to me when they are experiencing problems and when they need clarity about those problems. After telling them the cause of the problems they have, I then instruct them to fill a 2-litre bottle with water. I light one matchstick and insert it inside this bottle, then I pray for this water (we call this isiwasho). I instruct them to cleanse themselves, bathe, and steam using this water… I give them measurements that they can use so that isiwasho [spiritually blessed water] can last them for at least three days. After using isiwasho, they should see a positive change in their lives”.

FGD (1)

“I also work with “isiwasho” (spiritually blessed water). In this community, we believe in the power of “isiwasho” … rainwater is believed to be more effective, as it is believed to be more spiritual and is considered a blessing from God. Using rainwater to make “isiwasho” brings good fortune”.

FGD (10)

Prayer is interwoven with spiritual singing within an African spiritual context. The following narrative conveys the significance of traditional spiritual singing as follows:

“I know that another weapon for healing is prayer. If a family has lost their loved one… we gather women in this community, and then we visit that family. When we get there, we pray, and we do “ihubo” [traditional spiritual singing]. This is very important when paying respect to a family, as it’s a sign of strengthening them and giving hope that they will heal and be okay”.

FGD (5)

3.3. Theme 3: Healing Methodologies

Sub-Theme 3.1: Inhlambuluko (Healing the Lineage Through Truth and Reconciliation)

Sub-theme 3.1 identified inhlambuluko—healing the lineage through truth and reconciliation—which the participants described as follows:

“Inhlambuluko is about truth and reconciliation, while healing generational curses… Many things can divide families and community members. I arrange a sit-down with those involved, and we try to resolve the issue… Parties involved are required to tell the truth, no matter how painful, harsh, or uncomfortable it may be. Everyone is given an equal opportunity to voice themselves. Individuals must acknowledge their wrongs and shortcomings. They all listen to one another and acknowledge each other respectfully. Individuals ask for forgiveness, let go, and forgive each other, resulting in peace. I then have to officiate this by doing a small ritual and cleansing”.

FGD (9)

“After a bad fight with my mother, I threatened to leave my family forever. I did not mean what I said and didn’t expect it to have an impact, but I still left home. When I returned home, my family welcomed me warmly, but I became ill and almost died. My mother went to consult, and it turned out that my ancestors were unhappy with me for the way I left home and what I said. They requested an apology through a ritual and wanted me to do ‘inhlambuluko’ with my family, led by a spiritual leader”.

PI (4)

Another participant stated that African spirituality is grounded in communal justice. They explained that peace offerings are made through a court justice system overseen by the Chief’s committee, which works to restore peace among families. One community elder explained the process as follows:

“Families that take each other to court are obligated to ask for forgiveness and give the other a cow as a peace offering if found guilty by the chief and committee. A community elder is selected to witness the exchange, share wisdom, and encourage unity, then ask the families to shake hands… I have been selected before by the Chief’s committee as a community elder to witness and facilitate this process”.

FGD (2)

4. Discussion

African spirituality is characterised by a strong belief in, and connection with, unseen ancestral spirits. As reflected in the excerpts, participants reported that their ancestors played a pivotal role in connecting them with God, thereby enabling them to obtain answers to their problems. In this way, adherents can attain healing and achieve success in their lives. Other scholars have likewise described the ancestors as a conduit between humankind and the Supreme Being, thereby facilitating divine intervention in times of need (Ephirim-Donkor 2021; Chidester 2014).

Caldwell and Senter (2012) argue that some rural families find direct communication with a hierarchy (or Supreme Being) difficult. Consequently, they consult their ancestors using practices that include burning “Impepho”, to seek wisdom, guidance, and blessing, as in the current study. African spirituality centres on cultivating a sacred bond with unseen spiritual forces, particularly the ancestors. A study by Bhagwan (2017, p. 64) established the interrelationship between ancestors and spirits, and their interaction with the living. Lebaka (2019) and Von Kapff (2012) found that, within the African spiritual paradigm, ancestors exist in the spirit world and serve as mediators between their families and the realm of the divine. They are regarded as providers of security and are invoked for assistance during times of despair. Some traditional leaders, in the current study, reported that the ancestors send messages, unite individuals with their ancestors, and provide direct guidance on how to help individuals.

Ancestral spirits are a major spiritual presence and resource in African spirituality, helping families address challenges and supporting traditional healers in gaining insight into difficult circumstances, so they can assist families (Lebaka 2019; Ephirim-Donkor 2021).

The narratives convey the profound importance of ancestral veneration and guidance within African spirituality. Ancestors are seen as a central element of this tradition, watching over participants and their families and offering protection. Ohajunwa and Mji (2018) likewise note that ancestors are revered in African spirituality as guardians of African people’s lives. Their descendants hold them in high regard and remain respectful. Participants believed that African spirituality is grounded in collaborative problem-solving, compassion and humanity towards others, and a sense of collective community. Ubuntu recognises that each person’s humanity is shaped by their relationships with others, and that this recognition is reciprocal (Mabovula 2011).

African spirituality moves beyond ancestor reverence to embracing compassion, empathy, and the active practice of qualities and values central to humankind. Bhengu (2010) similarly found that Ubuntu, in an African context, guides individuals, families, and communities in how to value each other and the environment. The narratives within the current study reflect the strong connectedness between people. African spirituality is therefore embodied in each person’s behaviour and principles, which are interrelated and fundamental to overall personal, family, and community well-being (Sandlana and Mtetwa 2008). According to Dillard and Neal (2020), people do not exist in isolation from one another; instead, their actions reciprocally influence each other, affecting the community. Collective existence therefore emerged as a further aspect of significance within African spirituality.

Participants described the importance of the community coming together to support bereaved families, with women staying overnight to provide emotional support. To preserve African traditions, women adopt these roles, serving as community mothers or warriors who support those in times of distress (Dillard and Neal 2020). This shows that care and a deep concern for collective existence characterise ATR. The notion of collective existence in African spirituality was further illustrated by one participant, who remarked: “In African spirituality, you cannot exist alone”. The participant explained that ancestors do not recognise ceremonies that exclude the community.

Gumo et al. (2012) contend that communal ceremonies and celebrations strengthen social bonds and sustain unity within the community. Such gatherings often include music, dance, and storytelling, providing opportunities for participants to honour and appreciate one another’s spiritual journeys (Durojaye 2017). These participants’ narratives indicate that, in African spirituality, the individual does not exist in isolation; rather, identity and spiritual experience are profoundly shaped by participation in the broader community. This communal orientation appears to be a defining feature of the tradition. Singh and Bhagwan (2020) likewise affirm that African spirituality places strong emphasis on community and the interconnectedness of all life across its diverse expressions.

The findings indicate that traditional rituals and ceremonies are another characteristic of African spirituality. Previous studies have similarly shown that participants emphasised the importance of sharing meat and home-brewed beer with community members (Brown et al. 2021). Such practices cultivate a deeper sense of belonging, widely regarded as the essence of African spirituality within African communities. These traditions embody a collective existence rooted in principles of unity and generosity.

Participation in traditional customs fosters a collective existence that provides mutual support, particularly for individuals in vulnerable and disadvantaged communities. Afrocentric theorists emphasise collectivism, interconnectedness, interdependence as fundamental aspects of African spiritual existence (Ohajunwa and Mji 2018; Moyo 2023). The participants’ narratives reflect the importance of the collective within the broader context of African spiritual traditions, highlighting the communal nature of African spiritual practices (Mabovula 2011).

These findings indicate the profound significance of family traditions and rituals in safeguarding family life and preserving African culture. The practice of animal sacrifice during celebrations and ceremonies is regarded as a means of preserving family heritage and strengthening kinship bonds. A comparable study in Kenya reported that when a large family or clan is in danger, goats are slaughtered, whereas when the entire tribe is threatened by illness or another shared enemy, a bull is offered (Brown et al. 2021). Participants shared that attendance at these events is compulsory, and if a family member is absent, an elder must communicate with the ancestors and apologise on their behalf to avoid potential consequences for the family.

Families express respect and honour for their ancestors by remembering them and involving them in family events and decision-making. According to Knoetze (2019), ancestors are believed to bring wealth and protection, yet they also have the power to punish individuals who break traditions or fail to observe ceremonies. Furthermore, through sacrificial offerings, people can strengthen their connections with their kin and ancestors (Singh and Bhagwan 2020), who, in turn, can guide and protect them.

In his book Introduction to African Religion, Mbiti (1990) explains that sacrificial worship is deeply embedded within African communities, which hold that life is inextricably connected to blood (Mudimbe and Kilonzo 2012). In this context, the shedding of blood through sacrifice signifies the returning of life to God, understood as the ultimate source of all existence. As described by Mbiti (1990), common issues such as “good health, healing, protection from danger, safety during travel or other undertakings, security, prosperity, preservation of life, peace and various benefits for individuals” carry religious or spiritual connotations. The narratives emerging within the current study indicate that spiritual traditions and beliefs are central to African spirituality and serve to maintain kinship networks and reinforce the cultural identity of the community.

The findings also capture the role of elders and authority figures in African spirituality and how they influence the community’s cultural traditions and practices. Elders are highly respected for their knowledge within the African spiritual worldview and are responsible for leading family ceremonies and rituals. Their presence is regarded as a key element, and when elders are unavailable, individuals seek assistance from other community elders or the Induna, the deputy to the Chief.

Singh and Bhagwan (2020, p. 403) report that participants in their study often sought the guidance of family or community elders when confronted with challenges. Similarly, Knoetze (2019, p. 1) found that individuals and families who relied on kinship networks experienced connection, belonging, comfort, and improved overall well-being. In the present study, participants indicated that the Chief is regarded as the ultimate leader and ruler of the community. This aligns with Chapter 11 of the Constitution of South Africa, which recognises the role and status of traditional leadership under customary law in African communities. In this context, traditional practices are reported to and approved by the Chief or the Induna (Chief’s advisor), and community ceremonies are blessed by the Chief to ensure prosperity and order.

According to Moyo (2023), the traditional chieftaincy system has long functioned as a central source of authority and governance in many African countries, with chiefs and kings playing an essential role in community life. Olupona (2014) notes that, in African societies, kings were revered as sacred beings associated with gods, entrusted with the well-being and prosperity of the state. As Mbiti (2018) explains, their responsibility for maintaining social order often involved frequent ceremonies designed to reassure people of their welfare (Mbiti 2018). The system reinforced hierarchical structure of authority and the importance of deference to elders and traditional leaders in matters of tradition and community practice.

The narrative reflects a salient spiritual practice and belief within this African community: the reverence of uMsombuluko (Monday), observed in honour of uNomkhubulwane. Ngubane (2005) describes uNomkhubulwane as Mother Earth, revered as the Zulu goddess of rain, nature, and fertility. For generations, the Zulu community would plough their fields with a particular field set aside to be cultivated collectively by the entire village. According to Ndlovu (2016), this field was never weeded or harvested, until the following ploughing season, when the cycle would start over. As a result, communities would be blessed with many crops and blessed births. Therefore, there are days selected by the community authority to observe uNomkhubulwane for such blessings, and there are Nomkhubulwane festivals that are in place for when it is harvest time (Peta 2021, p. 80).

Many participants reported that working in fields on ngoMsombuluko (Mondays) was prohibited in this community, as it was believed to bring potential harm to the entire village. This spiritual rule is unique to the Ndwedwe community and applies to everyone, including traditional leaders, thereby stressing the collective obligation to respect this cultural tradition, with violations resulting in fines. It also signals the importance of observing Mondays as a sacred day dedicated to sustaining the well-being and cohesion of this traditional African community.

Shoko (2022, p. 22) similarly found that the Karanga tribe in Zimbabwe observed Chitatu (Wednesdays) as chisi (a holiday) to pay tribute to their ancestors. It is believed that failure to do so could result in adversity. Violating these taboos incurred penalties, such as offering a goat to the chief. Rural communities are, therefore, often guided by these spiritual beliefs and authority systems.

The current study further illuminates the unique cultural expression of traditional stick fighting in Ndwedwe, revealing its interconnection with the natural environment. The practice promotes not only physical strength but also spiritual growth, social connection, and community building (Nxumalo 2010). Exposure to nature during stick fighting may reduce stress, anxiety and depression (Mchunu 2007). Community elders and leaders employ stick fighting as an effective intervention for addressing psychosocial issues and gender-based violence, instilling values and anger management skills in young men. The practice benefits individuals, families, and the broader community, demonstrating its culturally grounded significance. It also represents a distinctive cultural expression, separate from its broader historical context.

The narratives convey the spiritual significance of waterfalls and rivers within African communities. Participants noted that waterfalls and rivers were sacred sites for prayer, constituting a deeply meaningful spiritual practice that helped them release negative thoughts, cleanse negative emotions, and experience renewal (Hamilton et al. 2020). Moreover, these practices strengthened their spirituality and brought blessings. Other scholars have argued that certain natural elements, such as rivers, trees, rocks, and animals, are believed to be inhabited by nature spirits within the African spiritual worldview, and that these elements possess spiritual power capable of affecting human lives (Rowkith and Bhagwan 2020). This view was reinforced by Mbiti (1990, p. 55), who said that “for the community at large, prayer may ask for rain, peace, the cessation of epidemics and dangers to the nation, success in war or raids, the acceptance of sacrifices and offerings, and fertility for people, animals and crops”.

The participants’ narratives suggest that water sources such as waterfalls and rivers possess a spiritual energy that offers healing, solace, and rejuvenation, particularly in times of hardship. Such natural sites may therefore be regarded as sacred and transformative within an African spiritual paradigm. Their therapeutic capacity is affirmed by scholars who argue that natural landscapes, particularly waterfalls, exert profound spiritual and therapeutic effects on individuals and communities (Strang 2015; Pikirayi and Magoma 2021). A study by Nyamweru and Sheridan (2008) notes that, in many African cultures, waterfalls are considered sacred sites that mediate social and spiritual relationships and shape the history and identity of communities.

Prayer and the sound of falling water are linked through spiritual forces that foster healing for those in need. Participants reported experiencing peace and tranquillity through their rituals at such sites. Even the Maasai in Kenya describe water as a “sacred artifact”, which plays a central role in their way of life (Borona 2020). Consequently, the reverence for sacred rivers, mountains, and animal species has supported the preservation of their ecosystems, owing to their spiritual significance (Sponsel 2016; Pungetti et al. 2012).

As reflected in the findings, spiritual leaders use spiritually blessed water (isiwasho) to help people overcome their problems and seek clarity. Participants reported that the use of rainwater as a cleanser for problems facilitated spiritual transformation and prosperity. Rainwater holds deep spiritual significance across various cultures, where it is regarded as divine water symbolising cleansing, renewal, and its inherent value as a life-giving force.

Traditional singing is another defining feature of African spirituality. Rowkith and Bhagwan (2020) note also described that while tribal communities often prayed at home with their families, they also engaged in communal prayer, using spiritual songs to seek blessings. In some cultures, such songs strengthen family bonds and offer hope and comfort. Spiritual songs typically carry specific meanings that foster healing, fortitude, and renewed resilience for those facing adversity.

The third and final theme highlighted healing methodologies as an additional characteristic of traditional African spirituality. Inhlambuluko was identified as a practice aimed at healing the lineage through truth and reconciliation. According to Moyo (2023), African spirituality is distinguished by practices that seek to heal, reconcile, and protect the family lineage. Participants reflected that the spiritual practice involves acknowledging past harms or trauma, thereby enabling individuals to pursue greater consciousness, unity, and healing.

Inhlambuluko is a reconciliation practice in African spirituality that addresses conflicts within families and communities (Ohajunwa 2019). Conflict between family members distresses the ancestors, requiring certain spiritual rituals to appease them and bring about peace and well-being (Durojaye 2017). As evidenced in the narratives, Inhlambuluko rituals facilitate forgiveness and cultivate peace for both individuals and families.

Interviewees reported that through open sharing, the acknowledgement of wrongdoings, and mutual forgiveness, the spiritual practice of Inhlambuluko helps to heal the family lineage and offset generational curses and bad luck for affected families. Other studies have shown that the healing practice of Inhlambuluko (lineage healing) functions as a powerful tool for spiritual transformation. This practice acknowledges the profound impact of intergenerational legacies, ancestral wounds, and family patterns that can influence on personal well-being (Caldwell and Senter 2012).

According to the participants, this ritual entails a facilitated meeting in which those involved voice their truth, listen respectfully, and take part in a ritual and cleansing ceremony led by a spiritual leader. Inhlambuluko therefore functions as a spiritual mechanism for promoting truth, reconciliation, and healing among African families and communities. Participants in a study by Gumo et al. (2012) similarly reported that, by actively investigating one’s family history and cultivating empathy and understanding, African families can confront areas of disconnection or unresolved conflict, enabling those affected to release the burdens of the past and reclaim a sense of wholeness and belonging within their lineage.

Caldwell and Senter (2012) further emphasise that this spiritual practice of truth and reconciliation within the African tradition enables people to break free from restrictive patterns and supports a more dynamic, integrated future for themselves and their family line. It does so by fostering forgiveness, restoring peace, repairing broken connections, and honouring the experiences of their ancestors.

5. Materials and Methods

This study employed a qualitative research methodology, which focuses on the systematic exploration of social phenomena in natural settings (Brannen 1992). As De Vos (2018) explains, such phenomena include how individuals experience aspects of their lives, how people and groups behave, and how interactions shape relationships. Aspers and Corte (2019) emphasise that, in qualitative research, the researcher functions as the primary data collection instrument, seeking to understand why events occur, what happens, and the significance of these events for the participants (Chesebro and Borisoff 2007).

The study spanned a two-year immersion period (2023–2024) in a deep rural community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. This enabled the researcher to engage closely with this predominantly African community through her involvement in a community engagement project during this time. She was therefore able to develop a deeper understanding of the participants’ lived stories and experiences. Two samples were recruited using non-probability sampling strategies, facilitated by a community leader. Several parents (n = 12) who practised ATR and fifteen traditional and community elders who were adherents participated in the study. Data were collected until saturation was achieved.

Two data collection methods were used: semi-structured interviews with Sample 1 (parents) and a focus group discussion (FGD) with community elders and traditional leaders (Sample 2). Both the interviews and FGDs were conducted in February 2024. An interview guide and a focus group guide were used, each piloted with a similar group of participants before the main study. Feedback from the pilot phase was incorporated into the final design to strengthen the reliability and clarity of the instruments.

Thematic analysis as employed to analyse the data. Vehovar et al. (2016, p. 329) describe this approach as “a systematic process for coding data in which specific statements are analysed and categorised into themes that represent the phenomenon of interest”. The analysis followed the six phases outlined by Braun and Clarke (2021): (1) familiarisation with the data, (2) generation of codes, (3) identification of themes from the codes, (4) review and refinement of themes, (5) naming of themes, and (6) production of the report. The recorded responses were transcribed and analysed holistically, resulting in the identification of three main themes.

Data collection commenced after ethical clearance was granted by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the Durban University of Technology (IREC 192/23). Approval was also obtained from the Ward Councillor of the Ndwedwe community in October 2023. Data were collected in the privacy of a community hall. Prior to each interview and the focus group discussion, each participant was provided with an information letter, a consent form to sign, and assurances that they could withdraw from the study at any time, that their identifying details would remain anonymised, and that all information shared would be confidential. Trustworthiness of the data was ensured through multiple strategies, including credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

To establish credibility, individual transcripts were reviewed to identify similarities within and across participants (Brannen 1992). The researchers also rigorously assessed and verified the accuracy of the participants’ accounts through member checking with each participant. Transferability was supported by a clear description of the study and its processes.

6. Conclusions

In the absence of extensive scholarly work on African spirituality, this paper contributes to deepening understanding of its multifaceted values, traditions, beliefs, and practices. The findings indicate that African spirituality is not an individualised phenomenon but is interwoven with community and a pronounced commitment to collective existence. Ubuntu emerges as a central feature, exemplifying care, compassion, and support for all humankind. The collective orientation is evident in that African sacred traditional ceremonies and rituals are performed communally. This study found that family- and community-based participation in such ceremonies is recognised by the ancestors. Social cohesion is strengthened, and communal unity maintained, through communal ceremonies and rituals within an African spiritual context. Such gatherings involve music, dance, and storytelling, enabling participants to express appreciation and respect for one another’s spiritual journeys (Ohajunwa 2019).

A further facet of ATR is the deep reverence for ancestral spirits, who serve as a conduit between humankind and God. Ancestors are understood to exist in the spirit world as mediators between people and the divine realm (Lebaka 2019). Within the ATR paradigm, they are invoked to help, comfort, and strengthen those confronting despair (Brown et al. 2021). The role of traditional and spiritual leaders, who facilitated ceremonies in this space, reflects the importance of elders who understand traditional practices and can restore well-being and harmony where needed. Inhlambuluko was identified as another salient spiritual practice used to address generational issues through forgiveness, the restoration of peace, and honouring the ancestors (Mabvurira 2016; Caldwell and Senter 2012). Finally, natural sites were identified as sacred and transformative within an African spiritual paradigm (Strang 2015). This study also found that communal prayer at these sacred sites fostered resilience and hope among families and communities.