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15 September 2026

15 Pages

Chemical Composition and Lipid Components of the Aerial Parts of Eryngium campestre L.

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1
Department of Chemical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Plovdiv “Paisii Hilendarski”, 24 Tzar Asen Str., 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
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Institute for Roses and Aromatic Plants, Agricultural Academy, 49 Osvobozhdenie Blvd., 6100 Kazanlak, Bulgaria
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Institute of Organic Chemistry with Centre of Phytochemistry, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
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Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci.2026, 16(18), 9127;https://doi.org/10.3390/app16189127
This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plant-Derived Natural Products and Their Bioactive Applications
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Abstract

Eryngium campestre L. is a medicinal species of the Apiaceae family whose chemical composition and lipid constituents have not been comprehensively characterized in its aerial parts. The present study provides a preliminary characterization of the chemical composition of the aerial parts and lipid composition of glyceride oil obtained from this plant material. The aerial parts contain 9.05% protein, 72.91% carbohydrates, 6.61% ash, and 8.23% moisture, and have an energy value of 357 kcal/100 g. The essential oil yield is low (0.0275%, v/w, fresh weight), dominated by heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diyne-3-ol (74.51%). The glyceride oil content is 3.20% and it contains 37.12% unsaponifiable matter, 4.55% sterols, 2.29% phospholipids, and 1033 mg/kg tocopherols. Unsaturated fatty acids predominate, with polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly linoleic (30.3%) and α-linolenic acid (8.9%), accounting for 46.3%. Stigmasterol (52.2%) and β-sitosterol (38.4%) are the predominant sterols, while α-tocopherol (86%) is the major tocopherol. Phosphatidylcholine (42.1%) and phosphatidic acids (17.3%) are the main phospholipid classes. These findings provide a biochemical basis for future investigation of the chemical composition and bioactive lipid constituents of E. campestre.

1. Introduction

Eryngium campestre L., a member of the Apiaceae family, is a well-known medicinal herb valued for its broad spectrum of pharmacological activities. Reports in the scientific literature describe antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and antioxidant effects, among others, associated with various plant parts used therapeutically, including the aerial tissues and roots [1]. The species is a spiny perennial herb occurring from 0 to 1600 m above sea level and typically inhabits dry, open habitats such as pastures, meadows, roadsides, and other anthropogenically influenced sites. It also appears as a weed in agricultural fields [2]. The plant reaches 20–80 cm in height, with an erect, highly branched stem forming a characteristic spherical above-ground structure. Its leaves are rigid and spiny, deeply divided at the base and progressively simpler toward the apex [3,4]. The flowers are arranged in dense, globular inflorescences, and flowering occurs from June to August [2]. E. campestre is widely distributed across Europe (excluding northern regions), the Mediterranean basin, the Caucasus, and Southwest Asia. Given its medicinal relevance, several plant organs—including roots (Radix Eryngii), stems (Herba Eryngii), leaves, and flowers—are traditionally utilized [5]. Dried leaves, flowers, and roots are commonly used to prepare herbal tinctures [6]. Phytochemical investigations across different Eryngium species reveal a diverse array of bioactive constituents, providing a scientific foundation for the therapeutic properties attributed to E. campestre. The species’ chemical profile varies depending on geographical origin and the specific plant parts examined. Studies on solvent extracts and essential oil of E. campestre indicate the presence of flavonoids, phenolic acids, coumarins, steroids, saponins, and oligosaccharides [7]. Nebija et al. [8] additionally report micro- and macroelement content in both aerial parts and roots, with concentrations differing between these parts. Despite extensive phytochemical characterization, no data are available regarding the total plant biomass or the glyceride oil composition of E. campestre species. Although such information is lacking for this species, relevant insights exist for other Apiaceae members. For example, coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) seeds exhibit an oil yield of 12.3%, with oleic acid identified as the predominant fatty acid [9]. According to the same authors, bitter fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. var. vulgare), anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), caraway (Carum carvi L.), and coriander are characterized by high sterol levels, predominantly stigmasterol and β-sitosterol. In anise oil, total sterol content reaches 903.9 mg/100 g. While β-sitosterol predominates in the oils of anise, cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), and coriander (211.6, 240.2, and 177.6 mg/100 g, respectively), stigmasterol is the major sterol in dill (Anethum graveolens L.) seed oil (172.5 mg/100 g). Other authors [10] likewise report stigmasterol as the dominant sterol in dill seed oil, a finding also noted by Ramadan and Mörsel [11] for coriander seed oil. The presence of Δ7-sterols is noteworthy because they are known to inhibit 5α-reductase, the enzyme responsible for converting testosterone into dihydrotestosterone and thereby contributing to the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia [12].
To date, no studies have investigated the glyceride oil of E. campestre, whereas its essential oil has been previously examined. The plant is considered a low-yielding species [13], and the essential oil content is strongly influenced by several factors, such as geographical origin, climatic conditions during the year, phenological phase, plant part, use of fresh or dried material, duration and conditions of hydrodistillation, and genetic differences between natural populations [14]. The main amount of essential oil is contained in the inflorescences—0.1–0.4% [15].
Due to the phytochemical diversity and documented pharmacological potential of E. campestre, further characterization of its chemical composition is important for a better understanding of the distribution of bioactive compounds in the plant. Although numerous studies have investigated specific organs or solvent extracts, comprehensive data on the composition of the aerial parts and, in particular, their lipid fraction remain limited. As E. campestre is primarily recognized for its medicinal and traditional therapeutic uses, information on its major nutritional components can provide complementary insight into the overall composition of the plant biomass. Determination of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and ash therefore contributes to establishing a baseline for the assessment of its bioactive and lipid constituents. Accordingly, the aim of the present study is to perform preliminary analyses of the chemical composition of the aerial parts of E. campestre and to characterize the lipid composition of the glyceride oil obtained from this plant material. These results provide a basis for further studies aimed at determining the content and distribution of biologically active compounds in the individual plant parts.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

2.1.1. Plant Material

The entire aboveground plant material from the wild population was collected in July 2025 at the flowering stage. The sampling site is the Tyulbeto locality, Kazanlak, Bulgaria (42.6287° N, 25.4089° E; WGS84). The plant material from E. campestre. was provided by Ana Dobreva and taxonomically identified by Prof. Neli Grozeva, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria. A voucher specimen was deposited at the Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (IBER-BAS), under voucher specimen number SOM 179698. The moisture content of freshly harvested aerial parts was determined in five replicate measurements using a moisture analyzer and it was found to be 25.70%. This value was used to correct the essential oil yield from fresh-weight to dry-weight basis. The fresh material was distilled immediately to obtain the essential oil.
Following air-drying at room temperature (22–25 °C), the residual moisture content of the plant material was 8.23%. The latter value was determined as part of the proximate composition analysis. The dried plant material was subsequently milled with a GRINDOMIX GM 200 laboratory grinder (Retsch GmbH, Haan, Germany) to obtain a 30-mesh particle size. All aboveground plant parts were processed together. The resulting homogenized powder was then used for further analysis.

2.1.2. Essential Oil

Essential oil was isolated by hydrodistillation in pilot-scale distillation apparatus with a 5 L still. The distillation parameters are as follows: 250 g of plant material, 2500 mL of water, a distillation time of 4 h, and a distillate flow rate of 5–7 mL min−1. The essential oil yield was measured volumetrically (mL) and expressed as volume per weight (% v/w) using the following equation:
Essential oil yield (%, v/w) = Volume of essential oil (mL)/Mass of plant material (g) × 100
Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)
The volatile constituents of the samples were analyzed using an Agilent 7820A GC System Plus (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) coupled simultaneously to a 5977B Mass Selective Detector (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and a flame-ionization detector (FID). Chromatographic separation was achieved on a DB-5 ms fused-silica capillary column (J&W Scientific, Folsom, CA, USA; 60 m × 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness). The oven temperature program was as follows: initial temperature of 75 °C held for 2.5 min, increased to 175 °C at 5 °C min−1, then to 250 °C at 4 °C min−1, and finally to 300 °C at 10 °C min−1, with a final holding time of 15 min. Helium (99.999% purity) served as the carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 0.8 mL min−1. Samples were injected with a split ratio of 1:50, while both the injector and transfer line were maintained at 280 °C. The mass spectrometer operated in electron impact (EI) ionization mode at 70 eV, with the ion source and quadrupole temperatures set to 230 °C and 150 °C, respectively. Mass spectra were acquired over the m/z range of 45–750.
Gas Chromatography with Flame-Ionization Detection (GC-FID)
Quantitative chromatographic analysis was performed by GC-FID using the same chromatographic conditions and oven temperature program as those described for the GC/MS measurements. The chromatographic system incorporated a post-column flow splitter, enabling the simultaneous acquisition of chromatograms by both the mass spectrometric and flame-ionization detectors from a single injection. Instrument operation, data acquisition, and chromatographic processing were carried out with MassHunter Workstation software (Revision B.06.07, Agilent Technologies).
Compound Identification and Quantitative Analysis
Compound identification was based on GC/MS data through comparison of the recorded mass spectra with those available in the NIST 14, Wiley 7th Edition Mass Spectral Library, and FFNSC3 Flavor and Fragrance GC/MS Library. The identifications were further supported by comparison of the experimentally determined linear retention indices (LRI) with published reference values. For constituents lacking suitable reference spectra or retention data, tentative structural assignments were made by evaluating their characteristic fragmentation patterns together with information reported in the literature.
The relative amounts of the major constituents were determined from GC-FID chromatograms using the internal normalization approach, assuming an identical response factor (RF = 1) for all detected components. Although this procedure does not provide absolute quantification, it is widely accepted for estimating the relative composition of essential oils and enables reliable comparison of the chemical profiles among the investigated Eryngium campestre samples.

2.2. Chemical Composition of the Plant

Glyceride oil was isolated by Soxhlet extraction using n-hexane as the extraction solvent (boiling range 40–60 °C, CAS No. 110-54-3; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). Once the extraction cycle was completed, the solvent was eliminated with a rotary vacuum evaporator, leaving behind the crude glyceride oil as the final residue [16].
The total protein content of the plant material was determined using the Kjeldahl method. Samples were digested in a Velp Scientifica system (Usmate Velate, Italy) and distilled on a UDK 127 [17]. Protein levels were calculated using the standard nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor: %N × 6.25.
Total carbohydrates were estimated by difference, using the formula: 100 − (grams of protein + lipids + moisture + ash per 100 g dry material) [18].
The amounts of fiber, ash, and moisture were assessed according to AOAC procedures [17]. Fiber was quantified after sequential acid and alkaline hydrolysis: approximately 3 g of sample was treated with 1.25% H2SO4 for 30 min, filtered through a glass crucible, and rinsed with hot distilled water. The remaining solid was then subjected to alkaline digestion with 1.25% KOH for another 30 min, followed by filtration, washing, and drying to constant weight to obtain crude fiber. Ash content was measured by incinerating the plant material in a muffle furnace at 600 °C until a stable mass was achieved. Moisture content was determined by drying the sample at 105 °C to constant weight.
The energy value (EV), expressed as kcal per 100 g, was calculated using conventional nutritional conversion factors: EV (kcal/100 g) = (% protein × 4.0) + (% carbohydrates × 4.0) + (% lipids × 9.0) [18].

2.3. Lipid Composition

2.3.1. Determination of Fatty Acid Composition

The fatty acid profile was determined by gas chromatography (GC) following the preparation of fatty acid methyl esters in accordance with ISO 12966-1:2014 [19] and ISO 12966-2:2017 [20]. Approximately 0.1 g of glyceride oil was weighed into a flask, followed by the addition of 1 mL of hexane and 10 mL of a methylating mixture consisting of 2% sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in absolute methanol. The mixture was heated at 50 °C under reflux for 2 h to obtain the corresponding fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). Prior to GC analysis, the resulting mixture was purified by thin layer chromatography (TLC). Chromatographic separation was carried out on an Agilent 8860 GC system (Santa Clara, CA, USA) equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) and a DB Fast FAME capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm; Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The oven program began at 70 °C (1 min hold), followed by a ramp of 5 °C/min to 250 °C, with a final hold of 3 min. Injector and detector temperatures were set to 270 °C and 300 °C, respectively. Individual fatty acids were identified by comparing retention times with those of a certified 37 component FAME reference mixture (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) analyzed under identical chromatographic conditions.

2.3.2. Sterol Composition

The glyceride oil sample was first saponified, and the resulting unsaponifiable fraction was obtained according to ISO 18609:2000 [21]. Sterols were subsequently isolated by thin layer chromatography (TLC) and quantified spectrophotometrically following the procedure described by Ivanov et al. [22]. The individual sterol components were analyzed using an Agilent 8860 gas chromatograph (Santa Clara, CA, USA) equipped with a DB 5 capillary column (25 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm). The oven program began at 90 °C (3 min hold), followed by a temperature increase of 15 °C/min to 290 °C and then a slower ramp of 4 °C/min to 310 °C, with a final isothermal hold of 10 min. Injector and detector temperatures were maintained at 300 °C and 320 °C, respectively. Sterol identification was carried out using authentic reference standards, including β sitosterol (75%) and campesterol (10%) from Acros Organics (Morris Plains, NJ, USA), cholesterol from Acros Organics, and stigmasterol from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA), in accordance with ISO 12228-1:2014 [23].

2.3.3. Tocopherols

A Merck–Hitachi liquid chromatograph (Burladingen, Germany) equipped with a F 1050 fluorescence detector was used to determine the total tocopherol content. Tocopherol separation was performed on a Nucleosil Si 50 5 column (250 mm × 4 mm). The mobile phase consisted of a mixture of n hexane and 1,4 dioxane (96:4, v/v) (n hexane, CAS No. 110 54 3; 1,4 dioxane, CAS No. 123 91 1; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), following the protocol specified in ISO 9936:2016 [24].

2.3.4. Phospholipids

Individual phospholipid classes were separated using two-dimensional TLC, and their concentrations were quantified spectrophotometrically according to the procedures described by Schneiter and Daum [25] and the ISO 10540-1:2014 standard [26]. This analytical approach enabled the identification and quantification of distinct phospholipid groups based on their chromatographic mobility and absorbance characteristics.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

All analyses were performed in triplicate (n = 3), and the results are reported as mean ± standard deviation (SD).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Proximate Composition of the Aerial Parts of E. campestre

The determination of the main nutritional components, including lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins, provides complementary information on the overall chemical composition of plant biomass. Each of these macronutrients contributes to energy supply and metabolic and structural functions. The main components of the chemical composition of the air-dried aerial parts of E. campestre are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Nutritional and proximate composition of the aerial parts of E. campestre.
Carbohydrates are the predominant macronutrient in the plant, accounting for 72.91%. The total protein content is 9.05%, whereas the glyceride oil content is approximately three times lower, at 3.20%. Overall, the carbohydrates represent the primary energy source of cells, proteins contribute to structural integrity and metabolic functions, and lipids play important roles in energy storage and membrane fluidity [27]. Starch, soluble sugars, and dietary fibers constitute the main carbohydrates fractions. The aerial parts of E. campestre are rich in dietary fibers (27.22%), whereas the starch content is almost three times lower (10.46%). Soluble sugars are present in smaller amounts, accounting for 4.91%. The total ash content, determined after combustion of the plant material at 600 °C, is 6.61%. The moisture (8.23%) may contribute to the prevention of undesirable microbial or enzymatic activity. This value is comparable to the moisture content reported for air-dried seeds of Apiaceae species, ranging from 4.8% in parsley (Petroselinum crispum L.) to 13.0% in anise seeds [28]. The nitrogen content is relatively low, at approximately 1.45%. The energy value of the plant material is 357 kcal/100 g, which is comparable to the calorific values reported for other edible plant species, including beans (329 kcal/100 g), wheat (340–342 kcal/100 g), rye (345 kcal/100 g), and rice (351 kcal/100 g) [29].
The glyceride oil content of the examined plant E. campestre is considerably lower than that reported for the seeds of several Apiaceae species. According to Sayed-Ahmad et al. [28], the levels of glyceride oil in cumin, caraway, fennel, coriander, anise, dill, and parsley range from 2.0% in cumin seeds to 27.7% in coriander seeds. Their protein content also varies considerably, from 7.6% in caraway to 25.0% in parsley. The protein content previously reported for fennel seeds (9.5%) [28] is close to that obtained for the E. campestre aerial parts in the present study.
In contrast, Sayed-Ahmad et al. [28] report considerably lower carbohydrate contents in the examined Apiaceae seeds (30.6–55.0%) than the value obtained in the present study for E. campestre (72.91%). The soluble sugar content present in E. campestre is comparable to that reported for anise and parsley, at approximately 5.0% [28]. The dietary fiber content of the examined aerial parts (27.22%) is similar to that reported for caraway (25.3%), coriander (28.4%), and anise (25.0%), but considerably higher than the values reported for cumin (10.5%) and particularly dill seeds (4.8%) [28]. The total ash content of E. campestre is also within the range reported by Sayed-Ahmad et al. [28] for different Apiaceae species (4.1–13.0%).
All comparisons of the results obtained in the present study with values reported for seeds by other authors are intended to provide a phytochemical context for the present findings, and differences in the plant parts investigated should be taken into account when interpreting the data.

3.2. Essential Oil Yield and Its Chemical Composition

The mean essential oil yield obtained from four independent hydrodistillations is 0.0275 ± 0.0010% (v/w, fresh weight basis), corresponding to 0.0370 ± 0.0010% (v/w, dry weight basis) after correction using the moisture content of the freshly harvested plant material (25.70%). The essential oil yield of the Bulgarian wild population of E. campestre is lower than those previously reported for Spanish and Algerian populations [13,14,15]. This difference may be attributed to geographical origin, environmental conditions, phenological stage, and the use of the entire aerial parts rather than inflorescences alone, which are known to contain higher concentrations of volatile constituents. The results of chemical composition of the essential oil are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Chemical composition of the essential oil of the aerial parts of E. campestre.
Previous studies on the essential oil and extracts from various parts of E. campestre report highly variable chemical compositions, depending on the plant’s origin, seasonal harvest, and the specific organ extracted [14,15,31]. Despite this variability, the chemical profile reported in previous studies is generally dominated by sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, with germacrene D being the major component. Other sesquiterpenes frequently detected as major constituents include allo-aromadendrene, β-elemene, ledol, and spathulenol. However, certain populations, such as those from the Aegean region of Turkey, exhibit a chemotype dominated by α-pinene and hexanal.
In the present study, the essential oil of E. campestre L. is analyzed by GC/MS and GC-FID. More than 50 individual compounds are identified and quantified, representing 97.62% of the total detected compounds. In contrast to the chemical profile reported in previous studies, the oil obtained from Bulgarian wild population exhibits a complex profile strongly dominated by C17-polyacetylene derivatives (82.2%). Sesquiterpenoids (3.40%), monoterpenoids (1.7%), and aliphatic compounds (7.09%) are also found. The main constituent of the essential oil is falcarinol (74.51%), also known as panaxynol or carotatoxin (heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diyn-3-ol). This compound is a natural polyacetylene found in species of the Apiaceae family, including carrot (Daucus carota L.) and parsnip (Pastinaca sativa L.), as well as in members of the Araliaceae family, such as ginseng and English ivy. Other C17-polyacetylenes identified in the studied oil are falcarindiol (3.85%), panaxynone (2.77%), and the rare 17-membered-ring lactone campestrolide (1.07%), which was first reported by Medbouhi et al. [30]. The active isomers of falcarinol differ in their spatial configuration, with the (3R, 9Z) enantiomer being the naturally occurring bioactive form. Falcarinol and falcarindiol are identified as important antifungal compounds in carrots and other Apiaceae species. Falcarinol also serves as a pre-infectional defense compound in plants, inhibiting spore germination and exhibiting antibacterial activity against pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus [32]. Overall, the available literature indicates considerable variability in the essential oil composition of E. campestre populations, although sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, particularly germacrene D, are frequently predominant. In contrast, the essential oil obtained from the Bulgarian wild population investigated in the present study is characterized by a markedly different chemical profile, with C17-polyacetylenes, particularly falcarinol, representing the predominant constituents. These differences may reflect the influence of geographical origin, plant organ, and other environmental and developmental factors on the essential oil composition of E. campestre.

3.3. Lipid Composition of the Glyceride Oil

3.3.1. Unsaponifiable Matter, Sterols, Tocopherols and Phospholipids

The levels of unsaponifiable matter, total sterols, tocopherols and phospholipids, which represent important lipid-soluble bioactive constituents, are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Lipid-soluble bioactive components in glyceride oil from the aerial parts of E. campestre.
The unsaponifiable fraction includes sterols, hydrocarbons, higher aliphatic alcohols, tocopherols, and pigments. In the present study, we determined the content and composition of sterols and tocopherols. Phospholipids belong to the group of polar lipids and are important components of cell membranes in living organisms.
The unsaponifiable fraction, accounting for 37.12% of the glyceride oil, represents the largest relative share. This indicates that the oil is rich in biologically active lipophilic compounds, such as sterols, tocopherols and other components with reported physiological activity, as also noted by Ramadan [33]. The total sterol content determined in the glyceride oil of E. campestre is 4.55%, which is substantially higher than the values reported by Kozłowska et al. [34] for the seed oils of anise, coriander, and cumin, namely 568.8, 347.4, and 727.3 mg/100 g, respectively. These differences are most likely attributable to variations in geographical origin, environmental and cultivation conditions, and the specific plant parts from which the glyceride oil is obtained [35]. Each plant species is characterized by a specific sterol composition, which can also be used as a marker for assessing the authenticity of plant oils [9].
The total tocopherol content is 1033 mg/kg, which is higher than the values reported for other seed oils of the Apiaceae family, where the total tocopherol contents range from 280 to 900 mg/kg. Exceptions with higher contents include A. archangelica—1069 mg/kg and C. carvi—1486 mg/kg [36]. The relatively high levels of tocopherols observed in the Eryngium species indicate considerable antioxidant potential and suggest good oxidative stability of the oil.
The total phospholipid content is 2.29%, which falls within the range reported for vegetable oils and is relevant to the functional properties and stability of lipid system [37].
The obtained results show that the glyceride oil of E. campestre represents a valuable source of lipid-soluble bioactive substances, which may find potential for application in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

3.3.2. Fatty Acid Composition

Fatty acid composition is an important indicator of both the quality and stability of the glyceride oils. The individual fatty acid composition of the glyceride oil isolated from the aerial parts of E. campestre is presented in Table 4 and Figure S1.
Table 4. Fatty acid composition of the glyceride oil isolated from the aerial parts of E. campestre.
The fatty acid profile of E. campestre glyceride oil is characterized by a predominance of unsaturated fatty acids (60.7%) over saturated ones (39.3%). Polyunsaturated fatty acids account for 46.3%, exceeding the proportion of monounsaturated ones (14.4%). This profile is mainly associated with the high content of linoleic acid, which accounts for 30.3% of the glyceride oil. Palmitic acid is the predominant saturated fatty acid, at 25.6%. α-Linolenic acid (8.9%) and oleic acid (8.7%) are also present at relatively high levels. The remaining identified fatty acids occur at levels of up to 2.9%. Small amounts of atypical fatty acids are also detected, including γ-linolenic acid (1.5%), hexadecadienoic acid (1.6%), hexadecatrienoic (0.8%), and stearidonic acid (1.3%). Negligible amounts of linolelaidic acid (0.4%) and erucic acid (0.2%) are also detected, with their contents remaining below levels considered to pose a nutritional risk. The glyceride oil from E. campestre contains relatively high levels of the essential n-6 and n-3 fatty acids. The calculated linoleic acid/α-linolenic acid (LA/ALA) ratio is approximately 3.4:1, which is lower than the typical ratio reported for the human diet (5–15:1 for LA/ALA ratio) [38]. The n-6/n-3 ratio is close to 3:1, compared with the recommended range of 1:1–2:1 [39]. This fatty acid profile indicates a relatively favorable balance between n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and suggests that the glyceride oil may be of interest from a nutritional perspective.
The fatty acid composition of the aerial parts E. campestre differs from that reported for other Apiaceae species. In the seeds of many representatives of this family, petroselinic acid (C18:1 Δ6c) is the predominant fatty acid, with reported values ranging from 34.09% in caraway to 63.33% in fennel seeds [40]. Bagci [41] likewise reports petroselinic acid as the major fatty acid (39.4–64.2%) in the seeds of several Apiaceae species, including Prangos platychlaena Erzurum, P. uechtritzii Van, Conium maculatum Erzurum, Ferulago pauciradiata Erzurum, Heracleum trachyloma Erzurum, H. crenatifolium Erzurum, H. sphondylium subsp. atvinense Erzurum, H. pastinacifolium Van., and Malabaila pastiniacifolia Kayseri. Pencheva et al. [42] also report high petroselinic acid contents in fennel fruits collected in two consecutive years (72.7–74.2%). In contrast, petroselinic acid is not detected in the other plant parts of the Apiaceae species examined by Saini et al. [40]. These authors report a lower linoleic acid content in parsley leaves (2.14%) than that determined in E. campestre in the present study. The content of the palmitic acid of the examined E. campestre material is also higher than that reported for some other representatives of the family, reaching up to 11.09% in celery (Apium graveolens L.) seeds [40]. Similarly, the total polyunsaturated fatty acid content reported for the seeds of several Apiaceae species is lower, ranging from 20.13% in fennel to 34.17% in caraway fruits. An exception is parsley leaves, in which polyunsaturated fatty acids account for 75.63% [40].

3.3.3. Individual Composition of Sterols, Tocopherols and Phospholipids

Table 5 presents the individual composition of sterols (Figure S2), tocopherols, and phospholipids in the glyceride oil isolated from aerial parts of E. campestre.
Table 5. Individual composition of sterols, tocopherols and phospholipids of glyceride oil from the aerial parts of E. campestre.
The sterol fraction of the glyceride oil isolated from E. campestre is dominated by stigmasterol (52.2%) and β-sitosterol (38.4%), which together account for more 90% of the total sterols. Other components such as campesterol, Δ5-avenasterol, sitostanol, cholesterol, and Δ7-sterols occur at considerably lower levels, below 4%. This pattern is consistent with the typical plant sterol pathway, in which stigmasterol is derived from sitosterol via C-22 desaturation, resulting in characteristic mixtures of Δ5- and Δ7-sterols and stanols [43]. Previous studies report that both stigmasterol and β-sitosterol possess cholesterol-modulating and anti-inflammatory activity. Stigmasterol has been shown to inhibit intestinal cholesterol absorption, which eventually causes a decrease in LDL cholesterol [44,45]. A relatively high content of stigmasterol is also reported for fennel fruits harvested in 2021, with an amount of 41.2%, and it predominates over the quantity of β-sitosterol (39.7%) [42]. Zlatanov and Ivanov [46] report high stigmasterol content in some Apiaceae species, ranging from 26.6 to 47.5% in celery, dill, caraway, cumin, coriander, carrot, fennel, anise, and parsley. In the same study, β—sitosterol is reported as the predominant sterol in some of the examined species, with values ranging from 33.0 to 58.4%.
Commonly consumed vegetable oils contain γ-tocopherol (γ-T) and α-tocopherol (α-T) as their major tocopherols, typically at higher concentrations than the β- and δ- forms. Tocotrienols are generally absent or occur only at trace amounts [47]. According to Górnaś [36], however, the seed oils of Apiaceae species are characterized by a predominance of tocotrienols (67–99%). Among them, γ-tocotrienol (γ-T3) and α-tocotrienol (α-T3) are the principal homologues, accounting for 86–98% of total tocotrienols, whereas δ-T3 (0–14%) and β-T3 (0–5%) contribute only marginally.
In the present study, the tocopherol fraction of the glyceride oil from E. campestre is clearly dominated by α-T (86%), whereas γ-T accounts for 14%. Tocotrienols are not determined. These findings differ from those reported by Górnaś [36], who found that the tocopherol composition in Apiaceae seed oils is typically dominated by γ-T (48–91%), with the highest concentration observed in C. carvi and the lowest in C. cyminum (135.03 and 3.65 mg/100 g oil, respectively). C. cyminum exhibits the highest levels of α-T, whereas C. carvi contains one of the lowest (90.50 and 5.06 mg/100 g oil, respectively). The predominance of tocotrienols over tocopherols in Apiaceae seed oils is remarkable because tocotrienols are rarely encountered in nature. A major limitation in several studies on Apiaceae seed oils is the lack of authentic tocotrienol standards, which has hindered reliable identification of these compounds in the investigated species [48].
Limited information is available in the scientific literature on the phospholipid composition of Apiaceae species. In the present study, the total phospholipid content is 2.29%, and the individual classes are distributed as follows: phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidic acids, and one unidentified phosphorus-containing compound. Phosphatidylcholine is the predominant component (42.1%), followed by phosphatidic acids (17.3%) and phosphatidylinositol (16.8%). Phosphatidylethanolamine accounts for 14.9%, whereas the unidentified phosphorus-containing compound represents 8.9% of the phospholipid fraction. The obtained profile is similar to that reported by Lajnef et al. [49] for Eryngium maritimum, in which phosphatidylcholine is the predominant component (>60%), followed by phosphatidic acids (about 30%).

4. Conclusions

The aerial parts of E. campestre are characterized by a chemical profile with a high carbohydrate content and a moderate protein content. The yields of glyceride and essential oils are low. The glyceride oil contains a range of bioactive lipid components, including sterols, tocopherols, phospholipids, and fatty acids. Its fatty acid composition is dominated by polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic and α-linolenic acids, resulting in favorable LA/ALA and n-6/n-3 ratios. The sterol fraction is characterized by high levels of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol, whereas α-tocopherol is the predominant tocopherol. The essential oil yield is low, with polyacetylene heptadeca-1,9-dien-4,6-diyn-3-ol identified as the predominant component. This chemical profile may suggest a characteristic chemotype of the studied E. campestre population; however, further studies involving different populations and geographical origins are required to confirm this chemotypic characteristic at the species level. Overall, the glyceride oil obtained from the aerial parts of E. campestre represents a source of nutritionally and physiologically relevant lipid compounds. The bioactive-rich essential oil, characterized by the predominance of falcarinol, may warrant further safety, bioactivity, and formulation studies before any potential applications in food, cosmetic, or pharmaceutical fields can be considered.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app16189127/s1; Figure S1. Chromatogram of the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) of the glyceride oil isolated from the aerial parts of E. campestre; Figure S2. Chromatogram of the individual sterol composition of the glyceride oil isolated from the aerial parts of E. campestre.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, O.T. and A.D.; methodology, O.T., Z.P., G.A. and M.A.-R.; validation, G.A. and Z.P.; formal analysis, O.T., Z.P., M.A.-R., D.A.-N., K.G. and G.A.; investigation, O.T. and Z.P.; resources, A.D. and O.T.; data curation, Z.P., G.A. and O.T.; writing—original draft preparation, O.T., Z.P., D.A.-N. and K.G.; writing—review and editing, G.A., M.A.-R. and A.D.; visualization, O.T. and Z.P.; supervision, Z.P., A.D. and O.T.; project administration, A.D.; funding acquisition, A.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article and Supplementary Materials. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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