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Volume 16
Issue 18
10.3390/buildings16183715
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Review

Carbonation and Restrained Shrinkage Cracking as Coupled Service-Life Controls in Low-Carbon Building Concrete: A Critical Review

by
Nauman Ijaz
1,
Nianqing Zhou
1,
Zain Ijaz
2,*,
Zia Ur-Rehman
3,
Alaaeldin A. A. Abdelmagid
1,
Xiaofeng Wang
1 and
Bocong Huang
1
1
School of Civil Engineering, Quanzhou University of Information Engineering, Quanzhou 362000, China
2
Key Laboratory of Geotechnical and Underground Engineering of Ministry of Education, Department of Geotechnical Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
3
School of Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, University of Derby, Derby DE22 3AW, UK
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2026, 16(18), 3715; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16183715 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 28 August 2026 / Revised: 12 September 2026 / Accepted: 14 September 2026 / Published: 17 September 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Embodied-CO2 savings in clinker-reduced concrete must be evaluated alongside cover-zone durability and service life. This review examines carbonation and shrinkage/restrained cracking as coupled, rather than independent, controls on atmospheric service life in reinforced concrete buildings. The synthesis links binder route to cover-zone transport and alkalinity buffering and explains how curing, preconditioning, relative humidity (RH), CO2 concentration, exposure geometry, and crack state affect reported carbonation rankings. It develops a two-domain conceptual framework for interpreting the effective carbonation front in cracked cover, with a descriptive crack-amplification index for reporting localized penetration. Practical mitigation is organized around mix-design levers, curing and construction actions, and a three-tier performance-based assessment workflow with a coupled test matrix. The review closes with a reporting checklist and five research gaps. The central conclusion is conditional: clinker-reduced building concrete can meet specified carbonation-performance requirements when curing, RH history, paste volume, and crack connectivity are assessed and managed together.
Keywords: low-carbon concrete; clinker reduction; supplementary cementitious materials; carbonation; autogenous shrinkage; drying shrinkage; restrained cracking; service life low-carbon concrete; clinker reduction; supplementary cementitious materials; carbonation; autogenous shrinkage; drying shrinkage; restrained cracking; service life

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MDPI and ACS Style

Ijaz, N.; Zhou, N.; Ijaz, Z.; Ur-Rehman, Z.; Abdelmagid, A.A.A.; Wang, X.; Huang, B. Carbonation and Restrained Shrinkage Cracking as Coupled Service-Life Controls in Low-Carbon Building Concrete: A Critical Review. Buildings 2026, 16, 3715. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16183715

AMA Style

Ijaz N, Zhou N, Ijaz Z, Ur-Rehman Z, Abdelmagid AAA, Wang X, Huang B. Carbonation and Restrained Shrinkage Cracking as Coupled Service-Life Controls in Low-Carbon Building Concrete: A Critical Review. Buildings. 2026; 16(18):3715. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16183715

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ijaz, Nauman, Nianqing Zhou, Zain Ijaz, Zia Ur-Rehman, Alaaeldin A. A. Abdelmagid, Xiaofeng Wang, and Bocong Huang. 2026. "Carbonation and Restrained Shrinkage Cracking as Coupled Service-Life Controls in Low-Carbon Building Concrete: A Critical Review" Buildings 16, no. 18: 3715. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16183715

APA Style

Ijaz, N., Zhou, N., Ijaz, Z., Ur-Rehman, Z., Abdelmagid, A. A. A., Wang, X., & Huang, B. (2026). Carbonation and Restrained Shrinkage Cracking as Coupled Service-Life Controls in Low-Carbon Building Concrete: A Critical Review. Buildings, 16(18), 3715. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16183715

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