Skip to Content
MDPIMDPI

Advanced

NutrientsNutrients
PDF
  • Review
  • Open Access

12 October 2026

15 Pages

Korean Buddhist Temple Food: A Traditional Plant-Based Dietary Pattern Linking Gut Microbiota, Metabolic Health, and Mindful Living

,
,
and
1
Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Dongguk University, Gyeongju 38066, Republic of Korea
2
Institute of Temple Cuisine and Healing Medicine, College of Medicine, Dongguk University, 123 Dongdae-ro, Gyeongju 38066, Republic of Korea
3
School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
4
Department of Internal Medicine, Dongguk University Ilsan Hospital, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea
Nutrients2026, 18(20), 3331;https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18203331
This article belongs to the Special Issue A Life-Course Approach to Healthy Dietary Lifestyles for the Prevention of Non-Communicable Diseases
Version Notes
Review Reports
Order Reprints

Abstract

Korean Buddhist temple food represents a traditional plant-based dietary practice rooted in Korean Buddhist monastic traditions and characterized by an emphasis on seasonal and minimally processed plant foods. Traditional temple-food practices generally exclude pungent vegetables—such as garlic, green onion, chives, wild garlic, and asafoetida—and incorporate a variety of plant-based ingredients and fermented foods, such as fermented soybean paste (doenjang), soy sauce (ganjang), fermented red chili paste (gochujang), fermented soybean paste (cheonggukjang), and fermented vegetables (kimchi). This dietary pattern provides dietary fiber and diverse plant-based phytochemicals, while fermented foods may contain fermentation-associated microorganisms depending on their ingredients, production processes, and storage conditions. These characteristics distinguish Korean Buddhist temple food from dietary patterns dominated by ultra-processed foods (UPFs). This narrative review synthesizes evidence regarding the nutritional characteristics of Korean Buddhist temple food, its potential relevance to gut microbiome ecology and microbial metabolism, and the cultural and contemplative practices associated with its consumption, including ritual communal eating (baru gongyang), seated meditation (chamseon), and walking meditation (pohaeng). Available evidence indicates that several features of temple food, including high intake of plant-based foods, dietary fiber, and fermented foods, provide biologically plausible pathways through which the dietary pattern may influence gut microbial composition and host metabolism. However, direct human evidence linking long-term adherence to Korean Buddhist temple food with gut microbiome composition, microbial function, or microbiota–gut–brain outcomes remains limited. Therefore, the potential health implications of Korean Buddhist temple food should be interpreted in the context of heterogeneous dietary practices and the distinction between direct human evidence and indirect or mechanistic evidence. Further longitudinal and controlled studies are needed to clarify the relationships among temple-food consumption, gut microbiota, microbial metabolites, host physiology, and associated lifestyle practices.

1. Introduction

Korean Buddhist temple food (Sachal Eumsik in Korean) is a traditional plant-based culinary practice that has evolved over centuries within Korean Buddhist monastic communities [1]. Unlike conventional vegetarian diets, temple food traditionally avoids the five pungent vegetables—garlic, green onion, chives, wild garlic (Allium monanthum), and asafoetida (Ferula assafoetida)—based on the Buddhist belief that these ingredients may stimulate excessive sensory and emotional activity, thereby interfering with meditative stability and meditative discipline [1,2]. The dietary pattern emphasizes seasonal and minimally processed ingredients, including wild vegetables, mushrooms, seaweeds, legumes, roots, and grains, alongside a wide variety of traditional Korean fermented foods such as doenjang (fermented soybean paste), ganjang (soy sauce), gochujang (fermented red pepper paste), cheonggukjang (fast-fermented soybean paste) and kimchi (fermented vegetables) [3]. These foods provide dietary fiber, diverse plant-derived phytochemicals, while fermented foods may contain microorganisms associated with the fermentation process, depending on the food matrix, fermentation conditions, processing, and storage [4,5,6]. However, the presence of such microorganisms should not be equated with probiotic status or demonstrated clinical effects. In contrast to dietary patterns characterized by high consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs), temple food generally emphasizes whole or minimal processed plant ingredients and traditional preparation methods [2,7]. Nevertheless, the nutritional composition and degree of processing may vary across temples, regions, seasons, and individual dietary practices.
Beyond its nutritional composition, temple food is closely embedded within the broader cultural and contemplative practices of Korean Buddhist monastic life, in which dietary practice is regarded as an integral component of spiritual cultivation rather than merely a means of nourishment [8]. Meals are traditionally practiced through baru gongyang, a ritualized and communal form of eating, characterized by silence, gratitude, disciplined awareness, and the use of ceremonial bowls [9]. This practice encourages moderation, sensory awareness, and the minimization of food waste [9]. Although baru gongyang shares certain features with contemporary concepts of mindful eating, it is a culturally and religiously embedded practice and should not be considered synonymous with mindful eating without appropriate construct validation. In parallel, contemplative disciplines such as chamseon (seated meditation) and pohaeng (walking practice) are integrated into daily monastic life, forming a holistic behavioral framework that combines nutrition, mindfulness, meditation, and moderate physical activity [10]. These practices provide an important cultural context for understanding temple-food consumption; however, evidence directly linking specific contemplative practices among Korean Buddhist practitioners to gut microbiome composition, gastrointestinal physiology, or metabolic outcomes remains limited. Findings from meditation, physical-activity, or other behavioral studies may therefore provide mechanistic or indirect context rather than direct evidence for Korean Buddhist temple-food practices [11,12,13,14].
The present narrative review synthesizes current evidence regarding three interrelated dimensions of Korean Buddhist temple food: (1) its nutritional characteristics and emphasis on plant-based and minimally processed food; (2) its potential relevance to gut microbiome modulation through high dietary fiber, fermented food, and other bioactive food components; and (3) the broader cultural and contemplative practices that accompany temple-food consumption and may be relevant to gastrointestinal, metabolic, and psychosocial health. Available evidence suggests that several characteristics of Korean Buddhist temple food provide biologically plausible pathways through which this dietary pattern may interact with gut microbial ecology and host metabolism. However, the strength and directness of evidence vary substantially across outcomes and study populations. Direct human evidence linking long-term adherence to Korean Buddhist temple food with gut microbiome composition, microbial metabolites, or specific host physiological outcomes remains limited. Furthermore, findings from non-Korean monastic contexts (e.g., studies among Thai monks) provide indirect contextual insights into monastic lifestyles but cannot be treated as direct evidence for Korean temple food owing to distinct food compositions and cultural practices. Accordingly, this review distinguishes direct human evidence from indirect and mechanistic evidence and critically considers the extent to which findings from related dietary, microbiome, and contemplative-health research can be applied to Korean Buddhist temple-food practices. The review therefore aims to identify plausible biological pathways and evidence gaps rather than establish causal effects or characterize temple food as an integrated lifestyle medicine model.

2. Literature Search and Evidence Selection

Because this article is a narrative review, the literature search was conducted to pro-vide a transparent basis for identifying relevant evidence rather than to perform a systematic review or meta-analysis. Relevant literature was identified through searches of Pub-Med/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus, supplemented by screening the reference lists of key articles. Search terms combined concepts related to Korean Buddhist temple food and monastic practices (e.g., “Korean temple food,” “Korean Buddhist,” “Buddhist monks,” “Buddhist nuns,” and “temple stay”) with terms related to gut health, nutrition, microbiota, microbial metabolites, fermented foods, meditation, and physical activity. Studies addressing the nutritional characteristics of temple food, gut microbiota and related metabolic or gastrointestinal outcomes, or associated contemplative and lifestyle practices were considered relevant. The identified evidence was classified according to study population, exposure, study design, and evidence directness, distinguishing direct evidence from Korean Buddhist practitioners or clearly defined temple-food exposure from indirect or mechanistic evidence derived from non-monastic, experimental, or related studies. Particular attention was given to differences in dietary composition, ferment-ed-food consumption, seasonality, food preparation, duration of exposure, and monastic versus contemporary temple-stay settings. Evidence was synthesized narratively, with direct human evidence emphasized and indirect or mechanistic findings interpreted as supportive rather than confirmatory evidence.

3. Nutritional Characteristics of Korean Temple Food

3.1. High Dietary Fiber Content and Abundance of Fermented Foods

Temple food generally emphasizes plant-based ingredients such as whole grains, legumes, vegetables, and seaweeds, which can provide substantial amounts of dietary fiber depending on food selection, preparation, and portion size [15]. Dietary fiber modulates intestinal transit time, augments satiety, and functions as a prebiotic substrate for beneficial colonic microorganisms, thereby promoting the fermentative production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) [16,17]. SCFAs—principally acetate, propionate and butyrate—play pleiotropic roles in host physiology: butyrate serves as the primary energy source for colonocytes, fortifies the intestinal epithelial barrier, and attenuates systemic inflammation via inhibition of histone deacetylases and nuclear factor-κB signaling [17,18,19]. These findings provide a biologically plausible basis for considering dietary fiber as one potential pathway through which plant-rich dietary patterns may influence gut microbial ecology and host physiology; however, the extent to which these mechanisms operate specifically in Korean Buddhist temple-food consumers has not been directly established.
A defining and nutritionally consequential feature of temple food is its extensive incorporation of traditional fermented foods [2]. Doenjang, ganjang, gochujang, cheonggukjang, and kimchi may collectively constitute a rich source of viable lactic acid bacteria (LAB; mainly Lactobacillus spp. and Leuconostoc spp.), yeasts, and their bioactive metabolites [20,21]. The fermentation process enhances the bioavailability of micronutrients, degrades antinutritional factors such as phytates and trypsin inhibitors, and directly delivers fermentation-derived microorganisms to the gastrointestinal tract [4,22]. The presence of viable microorganisms in fermented foods should not, however, be equated with probiotic status, which requires specific strain-level characterization and evidence of a health benefit. Similarly, the co-occurrence of dietary fiber and fermented foods does not by itself establish a “synbiotic” dietary pattern. Therefore, fermented foods in Korean Buddhist temple food are best considered potential contributors to dietary microbial exposure and food-derived bioactive compounds, rather than established probiotic or synbiotic interventions [23].

3.2. Abundance of Antioxidant Phytonutrients

The seasonal wild greens and diverse vegetables central to temple food are rich sources of antioxidant phytonutrients, including carotenoids such as β-carotene and lutein, as well as polyphenols and flavonoids, together with vitamins C and E [24,25,26,27]. β-Carotene undergoes enzymatic cleavage to retinol in the intestinal mucosa, supporting vision, immune competence, and epithelial integrity, while simultaneously quenching reactive oxygen species and mitigating oxidative stress [24,28]. Fermented soybean products (i.e., doenjang and cheonggukjang) are particularly enriched in isoflavones—notably genistein and daidzein—that exhibit estrogen-receptor-modulating activity alongside potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [26,29,30]. These findings provide a plausible basis for considering the diverse phytochemical composition of temple food as a potential contributor to its biological effects; however, the presence of individual bioactive compounds does not establish specific health benefits of the overall temple-food dietary pattern. The concept of “food synergy” suggests that interactions among nutrients and bioactive compounds within whole foods or dietary patterns may contribute to biological effects beyond those of individual components, but such interactions have not been directly established in Korean Buddhist temple-food consumers [31].

3.3. Restriction of Animal Protein and Emphasis on Seasonal Whole Ingredients

Temple food categorically excludes animal-derived foods, including meat, poultry, fish, and eggs, relying instead on plant-based protein sources such as tofu, legumes, and nuts [2]. Dietary analyses of vegetarian populations have broadly reported lower intake of saturated fat and limited consumption of heme iron, alongside greater contributions of plant-derived foods and non-heme iron [32]. Such dietary characteristics might contribute to more favorable cardiometabolic profiles, including lower circulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and reduced concentrations of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a gut microbiota-associated metabolite linked to cardiovascular risk [33,34]. However, findings from vegetarian populations cannot be assumed to represent the specific effects of Korean Buddhist temple food, given differences in dietary composition, food preparation, duration of adherence, and other lifestyle factors. The plant-rich composition of temple food also provides dietary fiber and diverse phytochemicals that may influence microbial fermentation and gut microbial ecology [35]. These features provide biologically plausible pathways through which a plant-based dietary pattern may affect gut and metabolic health, but direct evidence in Korean Buddhist temple-food consumers remains limited.
Another distinctive feature of temple food is its emphasis on seasonal and fresh whole ingredients [1,2]. Seasonal vegetables, wild greens, mushrooms, legumes, and grains are selected according to their availability and freshness, potentially contributing to dietary variety and exposure to diverse nutrients and plant-derived bioactive compounds [36]. However, the specific composition and diversity of ingredients may vary according to season, region, temple, and individual dietary practices, and the health implications of this seasonal dietary pattern have not been directly established.

3.4. Temple Food as a Minimally Processed Diet

The NOVA classification system categorizes foods into four groups based on the extent and purpose of industrial processing [37,38]. Within this framework, ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are defined as industrial formulations composed predominantly of chemically modified food substances and additives, containing little to no whole food content [37,38]. Accumulating evidence suggests that high UPF consumption may be associated with adverse metabolic and microbial outcomes, while emerging research has also examined potential associations with alterations in gut microbial composition and function [39,40]. In contrast, Korean Buddhist temple food generally emphasizes whole or minimally processed plant ingredients and traditional food-preparation methods, although individual foods and preparation practices may involve different degrees and types of processing. Therefore, temple food should not be considered uniformly equivalent to a specific NOVA category, and its classification may vary according to the individual food and preparation method. Many temple-food ingredients and preparations would likely fall within NOVA Group 1 (unprocessed or minimally processed foods) and Group 3 (processed foods prepared via traditional methods), while traditionally emphasizing the use of whole ingredients and limiting the use of industrial additives [37,38]. This distinct dietary profile positions temple food as a compelling model for investigating how minimally processed, plant-based diets can counteract the metabolic and microbial perturbations associated with modern Western diets [35,41]. However, whether these differences translate into specific metabolic or gut microbiome benefits among Korean Buddhist temple-food consumers remains insufficiently established.

4. Korean Temple Food and Gut Microbiome Modulation

The gut microbiome—comprising trillions of microorganisms residing principally in the colon—maintains bidirectional interactions with immune, metabolic, endocrine, and neurological systems [42]. Diet is widely regarded as the most potent modifiable determinant of gut microbiome composition [43]. Two key features of temple food—high dietary fiber intake and regular consumption of fermented foods—exert complementary yet mechanistically distinct effects on gut microbial ecology, as discussed below [44,45].

4.1. High-Fiber Diet, Gut Microbiome, and Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1)

Dietary fiber resists digestion by host enzymes and arrives intact in the colon, serving as a major substrate influencing gut microbial ecology and host metabolic signaling [44,46,47,48]. Colonic fermentation of these complex carbohydrates can promote the abundance of various saccharolytic bacteria, potentially including taxa such as Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp., Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and Akkermansia muciniphila, depending on fiber structure, dose, and baseline host microbiome composition [47,48]. Among these, F. prausnitzii functions as a pivotal anti-inflammatory commensal whose abundance correlates inversely with inflammatory bowel disease severity in observational studies, while A. muciniphila reinforces the intestinal mucus layer and is associated with improved insulin sensitivity [47,49,50]. Together with microbiota-derived metabolites, including short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and polyphenol-derived metabolites (e.g., urolithin A), these microbial functions may contribute to the maintenance of host metabolic health [51,52,53]. Evidence from murine models demonstrates that dietary fiber plays a structural role in preserving colonic mucus and microbial architecture [54,55]. The importance of sustained fiber intake is further underscored by evidence that dietary deprivation can progressively reshape the gut microbial ecosystem [56]. Furthermore, experimental studies indicate that prolonged dietary fiber deprivation can progressively alter gut microbiome ecology and lead to persistent loss of microbial taxa, including depletion of key taxa such as Prevotella spp. [56,57]. In contrast, high-fiber dietary intervention in humans and experimental models can rapidly reshape the gut microbiota [58]. Consequently, this shift promotes SCFA production, thereby acidifying the luminal environment, which suppresses pathobiont expansion [59,60]. Importantly, these microbial metabolites provide a mechanistic link between dietary fiber, intestinal ecology, and systemic metabolic regulation [61,62,63]. In cell-based and animal models, as well as select clinical studies, SCFAs serve as endogenous ligands for free fatty acid receptors 2 and 3 (FFAR2/FFAR3) on enteroendocrine L-cells, triggering the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) to enhance glucose-stimulated insulin release, suppress glucagon, and promote satiety [64,65,66]. Concurrently, butyrate promotes colonic regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation, thereby maintaining gut immune tolerance [67,68]. However, these pathways should not be interpreted as a single linear fiber–microbiome–SCFA–GLP-1–Treg axis, and their relative contributions may depend on dietary composition, microbial ecology, host physiology, and experimental context. Importantly, although these mechanisms provide a biologically plausible framework for understanding how fiber-rich dietary patterns may influence gut and metabolic health, they have not been directly demonstrated in Korean Buddhist temple-food consumers.

4.2. Fermented Food Consumption and Gut Microbiome Changes

In a randomized controlled dietary intervention study, a 10-week diet enriched in fermented foods increased gut microbiome diversity and reduced circulating inflammatory markers compared to a high-fiber diet [69]. However, subsequent research has emphasized that these effects are not uniform across all fermented foods and instead depend on the food matrix, fermentation process, microbial composition, dose, and individual host microbiome characteristics [70,71,72]. Collectively, recent evidence further emphasizes that fermented foods can influence the gut microbiome through interactions involving food-associated microorganisms, fermentation-derived metabolites, and the resident microbial community [73,74,75]. The relative contribution of these components to gut microbial and host responses remains context-dependent and has not been established uniformly across fermented foods.
Korean Buddhist temple food commonly incorporates a variety of traditionally fermented foods, including jang products such as ganjang, doenjang, and gochujang, as well as fermented vegetables such as kimchi, with ingredients and preparation practices varying across temples and regions. These foods may contain fermentation-associated microorganisms, including lactic acid bacteria and, depending on the food and fermentation process, other microorganisms such as Bacillus spp., together with fermentation-derived metabolites and other bioactive compounds. However, the microbial composition and viability of these foods can vary substantially according to ingredients, fermentation conditions, maturation, storage, and subsequent processing. Accordingly, Korean temple food should not be considered a standardized source of live microorganisms or a defined probiotic intervention [3,5,6,20]. Unlike industrially processed fermented products, fermented soybean foods such as doenjang and ganjang contain diverse fermentation-derived metabolites and bioactive compounds, including peptides and polyphenol-related compounds [76,77]. The regular consumption of fermented foods within a plant-rich temple-food pattern therefore represents a biologically plausible source of dietary microbial and metabolite exposure, but direct evidence demonstrating that temple-food consumption increases gut microbial diversity or reduces systemic inflammation in Korean Buddhist practitioners remains limited.

5. Temple Food and Associated Lifestyle Practices

The health-promoting potential of temple food cannot be fully appreciated when isolation from the contemplative lifestyle in which it is embedded. Korean Buddhist monastic culture integrates dietary practice with baru gongyang (ritualized mindful eating), chamseon (seated meditation), and pohaeng (meditative walking)—a combination of lifestyle practices that may synergistically modulate stress physiology, autonomic nervous system balance, and physical activity levels through mechanisms that independently enhance gut microbiome health [1,9,10,14].

5.1. Baru Gongyang: Restraint and Gratitude as the Framework for Mindful Eating

Baru gongyang is a monastic ritual meal in which practitioners eat from four nested wooden bowls (baru: rice bowl, soup bowl, side-dish bowl, and water bowl), serve themselves only what they can consume, and finally rinse each bowl with water which is then consumed—leaving no residue [8,9]. The practice encapsulates two cardinal Buddhist values: restraint (jeolche, operationalized as portion-controlled eating commensurate with physiological need, and gratitude (gamsa, cultivated through silent contemplation of the causal chain that produced the meal) [8,9]. Although these features share certain characteristics with contemporary concepts of mindful eating, baru gongyang is a culturally and religiously embedded Buddhist practice and should not be considered conceptually equivalent to mindful eating without appropriate construct validation [10,78].
Mindful eating interventions have been associated with improvements in maladaptive eating behaviors, greater awareness of internal hunger and satiety cues, and a more adaptive psychological relationship with food [14,79,80]. These findings may provide relevant contextual evidence for understanding some behavioral features of baru gongyang, but they do not establish that participation in baru gongyang produces comparable effects. Beyond individual eating behavior, the communal practice of baru gongyang may provide an additional psychosocial pathway by fostering social connectedness and interpersonal bonding. Indeed, shared meals have been linked to greater perceived social connectedness, trust, and life satisfaction [81,82]. More broadly, socially supportive relationships and a sense of group belonging have been shown to buffer neuroendocrine stress reactivity, including hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity, although this buffering effect has been demonstrated mainly for social support and group identity in general rather than for commensal eating specifically [83,84]. Psychological stress, partly through HPA-axis activation, has systemic effects on immune, cardiovascular, and metabolic function, and may similarly influence the gut microenvironment through neuroendocrine and immune pathways [85,86]. However, these findings derive primarily from studies of social support, stress, or mindful-eating interventions rather than from studies directly evaluating baru gongyang. Therefore, they should be regarded as indirect or contextual evidence rather than evidence demonstrating specific physiological or gut-related effects of the practice.
Taken together, the contemplative and communal features of baru gongyang provide a plausible context in which eating behavior, social interaction, and stress-related processes may intersect [87,88,89]. Nevertheless, the proposed relationships among baru gongyang, mindful eating, stress regulation, and gut–brain health remain hypothetical and have not been directly established in Korean Buddhist practitioners. Future studies should therefore assess these constructs within the cultural and religious context of baru gongyang, using validated behavioral, physiological, and, where appropriate, gut microbiome-related measures.

5.2. Chamseon and Pohaeng: Integrating Meditation and Physical Activity

Chamseon (seated Zen meditation) constitutes a central contemplative practice within the Korean Buddhist tradition [10]. Neuroimaging and psychophysiological studies reported that regular meditation is associated with functional changes in prefrontal and limbic brain regions, including enhanced prefrontal regulatory activity and attenuated amygdala reactivity to stress-related stimuli [90,91]. These adaptations have been associated with changes in stress appraisal and physiological stress responses in mindfulness-related research [90,91,92,93]. Meditation has been associated with changes in autonomic and physiological stress regulation [90,91,92,93]. The vagus nerve represents an important bidirectional pathway within the gut–brain axis, integrating signals between the gastrointestinal tract, brainstem, autonomic nervous system, and higher-order brain regions [94,95]. Consequently, persistent psychological stress and impaired autonomic regulation can adversely affect gastrointestinal function, intestinal barrier integrity, visceral sensitivity, and the gut microbial ecosystem [94,95,96]. However, these findings are derived primarily from meditation or stress-related studies conducted outside Korean Buddhist monastic settings and therefore provide indirect or contextual evidence rather than direct evidence for the physiological or gut-related effects of chamseon.
Pohaeng, a form of walking meditation traditionally practiced between periods of seated meditation, involves slow, deliberate walking with sustained attention to bodily movement and each footfall [97]. It thus integrates low-intensity physical activity with sustained attentional engagement. Regular physical activity and exercise have been associated with changes in gastrointestinal motility and function, although findings vary according to exercise characteristics and individual factors [98,99,100]. Beyond these gastrointestinal effects, habitual physical activity has been associated with increased gut microbiome diversity and enrichment of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing taxa, particularly butyrate-producing organisms such as Roseburia spp. (e.g., R. intestinalis), Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and members of the Lachnospiraceae family [101,102,103]. However, the magnitude and direction of these associations vary according to exercise intensity, duration, diet, host characteristics, and baseline microbiome composition [104,105]. findings from physical-activity research may provide biological context for considering pohaeng but should not be interpreted as direct evidence of its effects in Korean Buddhist practitioners.
Taken together, chamseon and pohaeng represent culturally embedded contemplative and behavioral practices that may involve psychological regulation and physical activity, respectively. Their potential relevance to gastrointestinal, metabolic, or gut–brain health remains biologically plausible but insufficiently characterized. Further studies conducted in Korean Buddhist practitioners are needed to determine whether these practices are associated with measurable changes in stress-related physiology, gastrointestinal function, gut microbiota, or related metabolic outcomes.

6. Limitations and Future Directions

Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the evidence reviewed in this review. First, as a narrative review, the available evidence is heterogeneous in terms of study design, population, dietary exposure, and outcome measures. Direct human evidence linking long-term Korean Buddhist temple-food consumption with gut microbiota composition, microbial metabolites, gastrointestinal function, or metabolic outcomes remains limited. Much of the available evidence is derived from related dietary, microbiome, meditation, physical-activity, or experimental studies and therefore provides indirect or mechanistic rather than direct evidence. In addition, temple-food practices vary according to temple, region, season, food preparation, and duration of adherence, while co-occurring lifestyle factors may confound observed associations.
Importantly, the potential health benefits of temple food should be considered alongside its overall nutritional adequacy and food quality. A plant-rich dietary pattern can provide substantial dietary fiber and diverse phytochemicals, while thoughtful meal planning can help ensure adequate protein quantity and quality, as well as sufficient vitamin B12, iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin D, and omega-3 fatty acids, particularly when animal-source foods are largely or entirely excluded [106,107]. Fermented foods commonly used in temple cuisine, such as doenjang, ganjang, gochujang, and kimchi, can contribute to sodium intake, although their contribution varies with the recipe, portion size, and frequency of consumption [108]. Moderation and lower-sodium preparation methods may therefore help support a balanced dietary pattern. As with other traditionally fermented foods, appropriate processing and storage practices are important for maintaining quality and minimizing potential food-safety concerns. Some fermented foods may also contain viable microorganisms; however, their presence alone does not establish probiotic benefits, which require evidence for specific strains and intended uses. Their suitability may warrant individual consideration in people with particular health conditions, including those with compromised immune function.
Future studies should therefore prioritize well-characterized longitudinal and controlled studies involving Korean Buddhist practitioners and clearly defined temple-food exposures. Dietary composition, fermented-food type and quantity, sodium intake, nutrient adequacy, duration and adherence, and appropriate comparison groups should be systematically assessed. Future research should integrate nutritional and clinical outcomes with gut microbiome profiling, microbial metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids, gastrointestinal and metabolic biomarkers, and validated measures of contemplative and behavioral practices. Such studies would help distinguish the effects of temple-food consumption from those of associated monastic lifestyle factors and determine whether the proposed nutritional, microbiome-related, and physiological mechanisms are supported by direct human evidence. Balanced assessment of both potential benefits and nutritional or safety risks will be essential for determining the health implications of Korean Buddhist temple food.

7. Conclusions

Korean Buddhist temple food is a culturally distinctive plant-based dietary pattern emphasizing seasonal, minimally processed plant foods, dietary fiber, and traditional fermented foods. These features suggest plausible links to gut microbial ecology, microbial metabolism, and host health. Associated practices, including baru gongyang, chamseon, and pohaeng, may also be relevant to dietary behavior and stress regulation. However, direct human evidence for the health effects of this combined dietary and lifestyle pattern remains limited, as most supporting findings derive from studies of individual components or settings outside Korean Buddhist monastic life. Korean Buddhist temple food may therefore be considered a traditional dietary pattern with potential nutritional and microbiome-related relevance, while evidence supporting its use as a health intervention remains limited. Well-characterized longitudinal and controlled studies are needed to clarify how dietary composition, fermented-food intake, long-term adherence, and associated practices relate to microbial, nutritional, gastrointestinal, metabolic, and psychological outcomes. Such research would help distinguish biologically plausible hypotheses from associations supported by direct human evidence.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.Y. and Y.J.L.; writing—original draft preparation, H.-J.K., Y.H.J. and J.Y.; writing—review and editing, J.Y. and Y.J.L.; visualization, H.-J.K.; supervision, Y.J.L.; project administration, J.Y. and Y.J.L.; funding acquisition, J.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Korea Institute of Planning and Evaluation for Technology in Food, Agriculture, and Forestry through the 2025 Agricultural Life-Microbiome Innovation Technology Infrastructure Development Program (Grant number: RS-2025-02216704), funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express the sincere gratitude to venerable Sunims (Buddhist monastics) at the Jingwansa Temple Food Research Institute (Eunpyeong-gu, Seoul, Korea) for their invaluable teachings and guidance on Korean Buddhist temple cuisine. During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI, GPT-5.5) to assist with the review of original draft. The authors critically reviewed and edited all AI-generated content and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
GBAgut–brain axis
FFAR2free fatty acid receptor 2
FFAR3free fatty acid receptor 3
GLP-1glucagon-like peptide-1
GPR41G protein-coupled receptor 41
GPR43G protein-coupled receptor 43
HPAhypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal
LABlactic acid bacteria
LDLlow-density lipoprotein
SCFAsshort-chain fatty acids
TMAOtrimethylamine N-oxide
Tregregulatory T cell
UPFsultra-processed foods

References

  1. Moon, S. Buddhist temple food in South Korea: Interests and agency in the reinvention of tradition in the age of globalization. Korea J. 2008, 48, 147–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  2. Choi, H. Zen Buddhist nuns go global: Temple food in South Korea. Food Cult. Soc. 2023, 26, 709–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  3. Kim, S.H.; Ko, J.; Kwon, D.Y. Jang, Korean fermented soybean product, the result of endeavors of ancients for the best taste of Korean diet. J. Ethn. Food 2023, 10, 33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  4. Marco, M.L.; Heeney, D.; Binda, S.; Cifelli, C.J.; Cotter, P.D.; Foligné, B.; Gänzle, M.; Kort, R.; Pasin, G.; Pihlanto, A.; et al. Health benefits of fermented foods: Microbiota and beyond. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2017, 44, 94–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  5. Park, K.Y.; Jeong, J.K.; Lee, Y.E.; Daily, J.W., 3rd. Health benefits of kimchi (Korean fermented vegetables) as a probiotic food. J. Med. Food 2014, 17, 6–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  6. Jung, S.-J.; Chae, S.-W.; Shin, D.-H. Fermented foods of Korea and their functionalities. Fermentation 2022, 8, 645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  7. Louie, J.C.Y. Before we tell people to avoid ultra-processed foods, can they identify them? The case for cognitive validity criteria in food classification. Public Health Nutr. 2026, 2, e155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  8. Cultural Corps of Korean Buddhism. What is Korean Temple Food? Available online: https://www.koreatemplefood.com/EN/temple-food/buddhism/buddhism (accessed on 5 August 2026).
  9. Park, J.; Bonn, M.A.; Cho, M. Sustainable and religion food consumer segmentation: Focusing on Korean temple food restaurants. Sustainability 2020, 12, 3035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  10. Kim, Y.; Khil, J.; Seo, W.; Keum, N. The effects of mindfulness and Buddhist meditation coaching on mental health outcomes in college students. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2022, 2022, 8178930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  11. Moosan, P.C.; Suklaew, P.O.; Chusak, C.; Kaewpradup, T.; Kamonsuwan, K.; Adisakwattana, S. Buddhist ordination as a culturally embedded model for improving diet, body composition, and sleep quality in overweight and obese adults. Sci. Rep. 2025, 15, 25353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  12. Zmora, N.; Suez, J.; Elinav, E. You are what you eat: Diet, health and the gut microbiota. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2019, 16, 35–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  13. Wang, Z.; Liu, S.; Xu, X.; Xiao, Y.; Yang, M.; Zhao, X.; Jin, C.; Hu, F.; Yang, S.; Tang, B.; et al. Gut microbiota associated with effectiveness and responsiveness to mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in improving trait anxiety. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2022, 12, 719829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  14. Warren, J.M.; Smith, N.; Ashwell, M. A structured literature review on the role of mindfulness, mindful eating and intuitive eating in changing eating behaviours: Effectiveness and associated potential mechanisms. Nutr. Res. Rev. 2017, 30, 272–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  15. Das, G.; Jiménez Ortega, L.A.; Gonçalves, S.; Basilio Heredia, J.; Gomes Pereira, M.d.L.; Romano, A.; Shin, H.-S.; Patra, J.K. Anti-obesogenic effects of plant natural products: A focus on Korean traditional foods. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2024, 148, 104470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  16. Vinelli, V.; Biscotti, P.; Martini, D.; Del Bo’, C.; Marino, M.; Meroño, T.; Nikoloudaki, O.; Calabrese, F.M.; Turroni, S.; Taverniti, V.; et al. Effects of dietary fibers on short-chain fatty acids and gut microbiota composition in healthy adults: A systematic review. Nutrients 2022, 14, 2559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  17. Mukhopadhya, I.; Louis, P. Gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids and their role in human health and disease. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2025, 23, 635–651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  18. Wang, L.Y.; He, L.H.; Xu, L.J.; Li, S.B. Short-chain fatty acids: Bridges between diet, gut microbiota, and health. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2024, 39, 1728–1736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  19. Hodgkinson, K.; El Abbar, F.; Dobranowski, P.; Manoogian, J.; Butcher, J.; Figeys, D.; Mack, D.; Stintzi, A. Butyrate’s role in human health and the current progress towards its clinical application to treat gastrointestinal disease. Clin. Nutr. 2023, 42, 61–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  20. Patra, J.K.; Das, G.; Paramithiotis, S.; Shin, H.S. Kimchi and other widely consumed traditional fermented foods of Korea: A review. Front. Microbiol. 2016, 7, 1493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  21. Jang, C.H.; Oh, J.; Lim, J.S.; Kim, H.J.; Kim, J.-S. Fermented soy products: Beneficial potential in neurodegenerative diseases. Foods 2021, 10, 636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  22. Samtiya, M.; Aluko, R.E.; Dhewa, T. Plant food anti-nutritional factors and their reduction strategies: An overview. Food Prod. Process Nutr. 2020, 2, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  23. Parhi, P.; Liu, S.Q.; Choo, W.S. Synbiotics: Effects of prebiotics on the growth and viability of probiotics in food matrices. Bioact. Carbohydr. Diet. Fibre 2024, 32, 100462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  24. Jung, Y.J.; Ahn, S.M.; Lee, H.; Seo, M.J.; Kim, J.K.; Kim, D.O. Quantification of carotenoids in Korean fruits and vegetables using reverse-phase HPLC. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2025, 34, 2321–2330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  25. Fioroni, N.; Muquet-Rivier, C.; Meudec, E.; Cheynier, V.; Boudard, F.; Hemery, Y.; Laurent-Babot, C. Antioxidant capacity of polar and non-polar extracts of four African green leafy vegetables and correlation with polyphenol and carotenoid contents. Antioxidants 2023, 12, 1726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  26. Bhandari, S.R.; Choi, C.S.; Rhee, J.; Shin, Y.K.; Song, J.W.; Kim, S.H.; Kang, S.; Lee, J.G. Influence of root color and tissue on phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities in carrot genotypes. Foods 2022, 12, 120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  27. Olmedilla-Alonso, B. Carotenoid markers of dietary exposure and nutritional status. Nutrients 2023, 15, 2359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  28. Harrison, E.H. Carotenoids, β-apocarotenoids, and retinoids: The long and the short of it. Nutrients 2022, 14, 1411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  29. Lee, H.Y.; Cho, D.Y.; Jung, J.G.; Kim, M.J.; Jeong, J.B. Comparisons of physicochemical properties, bacterial diversities, isoflavone profiles and antioxidant activities on household and commercial doenjang. Molecules 2023, 28, 3516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  30. Langa, S.; Peirotén, Á.; Curiel, J.A.; de la Bastida, A.R.; Landete, J.M. Isoflavone metabolism by lactic acid bacteria and its application in the development of fermented soy food with beneficial effects on human health. Foods 2023, 12, 1293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  31. Townsend, J.R.; Kirby, T.O.; Sapp, P.A.; Gonzalez, A.M.; Marshall, T.M.; Esposito, R. Nutrient synergy: Definition, evidence, and future directions. Front. Nutr. 2023, 10, 1279925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  32. Cade, J.E.; Burley, V.J.; Greenwood, D.C. UK Women’s Cohort Study Steering Group. UK women’s cohort study: Comparison of vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters. Public Health Nutr. 2004, 7, 871–878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  33. Wang, Z.; Bergeron, N.; Levison, B.S.; Li, X.S.; Chiu, S. Impact of chronic dietary red meat, white meat, or non-meat protein on trimethylamine N-oxide metabolism and renal excretion in healthy men and women. Eur. Heart J. 2019, 40, 583–594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  34. Zhen, J.; Zhou, Z.; He, M.; Han, H.X.; Lv, E.H.; Wen, P.B.; Liu, X.; Wang, Y.T.; Cai, X.C.; Tian, J.Q.; et al. The gut microbial metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide and cardiovascular diseases. Front. Endocrinol. 2023, 14, 1085041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  35. Tomova, A.; Bukovsky, I.; Rembert, E.; Yonas, W.; Alwarith, J.; Barnard, N.D.; Kahleova, H. The effects of vegetarian and vegan diets on gut microbiota. Front. Nutr. 2019, 6, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  36. Sivakumar, D.; Sultanbawa, Y.; Cooperstone, J.L.; Ziv, C. Phytochemical changes in vegetables during post-harvest storage and processing, and implications for consumer benefits. Front. Nutr. 2022, 9, 1025361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  37. Grilo, M.F.; Nunes, B.; Duran, A.C.; Zancheta Ricardo, C.; Baraldi, L.G.; Martinez Steele, E.; Borges, C.A. Applying the Nova food classification to food product databases using discriminative ingredients: A methodological proposal. Front. Public Health 2025, 13, 1575136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  38. Monteiro, C.A.; Cannon, G.; Moubarac, J.C.; Levy, R.B.; Louzada, M.L.C.; Jaime, P.C. The UN decade of nutrition, the NOVA food classification and the trouble with ultra-processing. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 5–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  39. Monteiro, C.A.; Louzada, M.L.; Steele-Martinez, E.; Cannon, G.; Andrade, G.C.; Baker, P.; Bes-Rastrollo, M.; Bonaccio, M.; Gearhardt, A.N.; Khandpur, N.; et al. Ultra-processed foods and human health: The main thesis and the evidence. Lancet 2025, 406, 2667–2684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  40. Vitale, M.; Costabile, G.; Testa, R.; D’Abbronzo, G.; Nettore, I.C.; Macchia, P.E.; Giacco, R. Ultra-processed foods and human health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Adv. Nutr. 2024, 15, 100121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  41. Wang, T.; Masedunskas, A.; Willett, W.C.; Fontana, L. Vegetarian and vegan diets: Benefits and drawbacks. Eur. Heart J. 2023, 44, 3423–3439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  42. Sanz, Y.; Cryan, J.F.; Deschasaux-Tanguy, M.; Elinav, E.; Lambrecht, R.; Veiga, P. The gut microbiome connects nutrition and human health. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2025, 22, 534–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  43. Ross, F.C.; Patangia, D.; Grimaud, G.; Lavelle, A.; Dempsey, E.M.; Ross, R.P.; Stanton, C. The interplay between diet and the gut microbiome: Implications for health and disease. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2024, 22, 671–686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  44. Delzenne, N.M.; Bindels, L.B.; Neyrinck, A.M.; Walter, J. The gut microbiome and dietary fibres: Implications in obesity, cardiometabolic diseases and cancer. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2025, 23, 225–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  45. Seo, B.; Chung, S. Asian fermented plant foods as modulators of gut microbiota and host health: Current evidence and future perspectives—A narrative review. J. Ethn. Food 2025, 12, 37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  46. Cronin, P.; Joyce, S.A.; O’Toole, P.W.; O’Connor, E.M. Dietary fibre modulates the gut microbiota. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  47. Makki, K.; Deehan, E.C.; Walter, J.; Bäckhed, F. The impact of dietary fiber on gut microbiota in host health and disease. Cell Host Microbe 2018, 23, 705–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  48. Wang, W.; Fan, Z.; Yan, Q.; Pan, T.; Luo, J.; Wei, Y.; Li, B.; Fang, Z.; Lu, W. Gut microbiota determines the fate of dietary fiber-targeted interventions in host health. Gut Microbes 2024, 16, 2416915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  49. Danne, C.; de Oliveira Formiga, R.; Creusot, L.; Marquet, F.; Sedda, D.; Hua, L.; Ruffié, P.; Pham, H.P.; Brot, L.; Alonso Salgueiro, I.; et al. Faecalibacterium prausnitzii induces an anti-inflammatory response and a metabolic reprogramming in human monocytes. Gastroenterology 2026, 170, 704–720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  50. Ioannou, A.; Berkhout, M.D.; Geerlings, S.Y.; Belzer, C. Akkermansia muciniphila: Biology, microbial ecology, host interactions and therapeutic potential. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2025, 23, 162–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  51. He, K.; An, F.; Zhang, H.; Yan, D.; Li, T.; Wu, J.; Wu, R. Akkermansia muciniphila: A potential target for the prevention of diabetes. Foods 2024, 14, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  52. Moon, H.S.; Cho, C.H.; Yun, M.S.; Jang, S.J.; You, H.J.; Kim, J.H.; Han, D.; Cha, K.H.; Moon, S.H.; Lee, K.; et al. Akkermansia muciniphila secretes a glucagon-like peptide-1-inducing protein that improves glucose homeostasis and ameliorates metabolic disease in mice. Nat. Microbiol. 2021, 6, 563–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  53. McCarville, J.L.; Chen, G.Y.; Cuevas, V.D.; Troha, K.; Ayres, J.S. Microbiota metabolites in health and disease. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2020, 38, 147–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  54. Desai, M.S.; Seekatz, A.M.; Koropatkin, N.M.; Kamada, N.; Hickey, C.A.; Wolter, M.; Pudlo, N.A.; Kitamoto, S.; Terrapon, N.; Muller, A.; et al. Dietary fiber-deprived gut microbiota degrades the colonic mucus barrier and enhances pathogen susceptibility. Cell 2016, 167, 1339–1353.e21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  55. Deehan, E.C.; Yang, C.; Perez-Muñoz, M.E.; Nguyen, N.K.; Cheng, C.C.; Triador, L.; Zhang, Z.; Bakal, J.A.; Walter, J. Precision microbiome modulation with discrete dietary fiber structures directs short-chain fatty acid production. Cell Host Microbe 2020, 27, 389–404.e6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  56. Sonnenburg, E.D.; Smits, S.A.; Tikhonov, M.; Higginbottom, S.K.; Wingreen, N.S.; Sonnenburg, J.L. Diet-induced extinctions in the gut microbiota compound over generations. Nature 2016, 529, 212–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  57. Tett, A.; Pasolli, E.; Masetti, G.; Ercolini, D.; Segata, N. Prevotella diversity, niches and interactions with the human host. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2021, 19, 585–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  58. So, D.; Whelan, K.; Rossi, M.; Morrison, M.; Holtmann, G.; Kelly, J.T.; Shanahan, E.R.; Staudacher, H.M.; Campbell, K.L. Dietary fiber intervention on gut microbiota composition in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 107, 965–983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  59. Sorbara, M.T.; Dubin, K.; Littmann, E.R.; Moody, T.U.; Fontana, E.; Seok, R.; Leiner, I.M.; Taur, Y.; Peled, J.U.; van den Brink, M.R.M.; et al. Inhibiting antibiotic-resistant Enterobacteriaceae by microbiota-mediated intracellular acidification. J. Exp. Med. 2019, 216, 84–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  60. Strain, R.; Stanton, C.; Ross, R.P. Effect of diet on pathogen performance in the microbiome. Microbiome Res. Rep. 2022, 1, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  61. Koh, A.; de Vadder, F.; Kovatcheva-Datchary, P.; Bäckhed, F. From dietary fiber to host physiology: Short-chain fatty acids as key bacterial metabolites. Cell 2016, 165, 1332–1345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  62. de Vadder, F.; Kovatcheva-Datchary, P.; Goncalves, D.; Vinera, J.; Zitoun, C.; Duchampt, A.; Bäckhed, F.; Mithieux, G. Microbiota-generated metabolites promote metabolic benefits via gut-brain neural circuits. Cell 2014, 156, 84–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  63. Canfora, E.E.; Meex, R.C.R.; Venema, K.; Blaak, E.E. Gut microbial metabolites in obesity, NAFLD and T2DM. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2019, 15, 261–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  64. Brown, A.J.; Goldsworthy, S.M.; Barnes, A.A.; Eilert, M.M.; Tcheang, L. The orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 11312–11319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  65. Tolhurst, G.; Heffron, H.; Lam, Y.S.; Parker, H.E.; Habib, A.M.; Diakogiannaki, E.; Cameron, J.; Grosse, J.; Reimann, F.; Gribble, F.M. Short-chain fatty acids stimulate glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion via the G-protein-coupled receptor FFAR2. Diabetes 2012, 61, 364–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  66. Ichimura, A.; Hasegawa, S.; Kasubuchi, M.; Kimura, I. Free fatty acid receptors as therapeutic targets for the treatment of diabetes. Front. Pharmacol. 2014, 5, 236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  67. Furusawa, Y.; Obata, Y.; Fukuda, S.; Endo, T.A.; Nakato, G.; Takahashi, D.; Nakanishi, Y.; Uetake, C.; Kato, K.; Kato, T.; et al. Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells. Nature 2013, 504, 446–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  68. Smith, P.M.; Howitt, M.R.; Panikov, N.; Michaud, M.; Gallini, C.A.; Bohlooly-Y, M.; Glickman, J.N.; Garrett, W.S. The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis. Science 2013, 341, 569–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  69. Wastyk, H.C.; Fragiadakis, G.K.; Perelman, D.; Dahan, D.; Merrill, B.D.; Yu, F.B.; Topf, M.; Gonzalez, C.G.; Van Treuren, W.; Han, S.; et al. Gut-microbiota-targeted diets modulate human immune status. Cell 2021, 184, 4137–4153.e14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  70. Taylor, B.C.; Lejzerowicz, F.; Poirel, M.; Shaffer, J.P.; Jiang, L.; Aksenov, A.; Litwin, N.; Humphrey, G.; Martino, C.; Miller-Montgomery, S.; et al. Consumption of fermented foods is associated with systematic differences in the gut microbiome and metabolome. mSystems 2020, 5, e00901-19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  71. Diez-Ozaeta, I.; Astiazaran, O.J. Fermented foods: An update on evidence-based health benefits and future perspectives. Food Res. Int. 2022, 156, 111133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  72. Mukherjee, A.; Breselge, S.; Dimidi, E.; Marco, M.L.; Cotter, P.D. Fermented foods and gastrointestinal health: Underlying mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2024, 21, 248–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  73. Marco, M.L.; Sanders, M.E.; Gänzle, M.; Arrieta, M.C.; Cotter, P.D.; De Vuyst, L.; Hill, C.; Holzapfel, W.; Lebeer, S.; Merenstein, D.; et al. The international scientific association for probiotics and prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on fermented foods. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021, 18, 196–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  74. Caffrey, E.B.; Sonnenburg, J.L.; Devkota, S. Our extended microbiome: The human-relevant metabolites and biology of fermented foods. Cell Metab. 2024, 36, 684–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  75. Kim, D.; Joe, H.I.; Bae, J.W.; Wu, G.D.; Compher, C.W.; Koo, H. Fermented food microbiome: Influence on oral and gut microbiota, and human health. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2026, 24, 771–789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  76. Dwivedi, S.; Singh, V.; Sharma, K.; Sliti, A.; Baunthiyal, M.; Shin, J.H. Significance of soy-based fermented food and their bioactive compounds against obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2024, 79, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  77. Song, D.H.; Chun, B.H.; Lee, S.; Son, S.Y.; Reddy, C.K.; Mun, H.I.; Jeon, C.O.; Lee, C.H. Comprehensive metabolite profiling and microbial communities of doenjang (fermented soy paste) and ganjang (fermented soy sauce): A comparative study. Foods 2021, 10, 641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  78. Nelson, J.B. Mindful eating: The art of presence while you eat. Diabetes Spectr. 2017, 30, 171–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  79. Kristeller, J.L.; Wolever, R.Q. Mindfulness-based eating awareness training for treating binge eating disorder: The conceptual foundation. Eat. Disord. 2011, 19, 49–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  80. Allameh, S.A.; Mokhtari, Z.; Hosseini, E.; Askari, G. Effects of mindfulness-based interventions on food craving in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. BMC Psychol. 2025, 13, 1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  81. Dunbar, R.I.M. Breaking bread: The functions of social eating. Adapt. Hum. Behav. Physiol. 2017, 3, 198–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  82. Neuman, N. Commensal attraction: Eating together as a social tool. J. Theory Soc. Behav. 2024, 54, 556–570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  83. Hennessy, M.B.; Kaiser, S.; Sachser, N. Social buffering of the stress response: Diversity, mechanisms, and functions. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2009, 30, 470–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  84. Hostinar, C.E.; Sullivan, R.M.; Gunnar, M.R. Psychobiological mechanisms underlying the social buffering of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis: A review of animal models and human studies across development. Psychol. Bull. 2014, 140, 256–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  85. McEwen, B.S. Neurobiological and systemic effects of chronic stress. Chronic Stress 2017, 1, 2470547017692328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  86. Marwaha, K.; Cain, R.; Asmis, K.; Czaplinski, K.; Holland, N.; Mayer, D.C.G.; Chacon, J. Exploring the complex relationship between psychosocial stress and the gut microbiome: Implications for inflammation and immune modulation. J. Appl. Physiol. 2025, 138, 518–535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  87. Cryan, J.F.; Dinan, T.G. Mind-altering microorganisms: The impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2012, 13, 701–712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  88. Foster, J.A.; McVey Neufeld, K.A. Gut-brain axis: How the microbiome influences anxiety and depression. Trends Neurosci. 2013, 36, 305–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  89. Holt-Lunstad, J. Social connection as a public health issue: The evidence and a systemic framework for prioritizing the “social” in social determinants of health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2022, 43, 193–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  90. Tang, Y.Y.; Hölzel, B.K.; Posner, M.I. The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2015, 16, 213–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  91. Marchand, W.R. Neural mechanisms of mindfulness and meditation: Evidence from neuroimaging studies. World J. Radiol. 2014, 6, 471–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  92. Villalba, D.K.; Lindsay, E.K.; Marsland, A.L.; Greco, C.M.; Young, S.; Brown, K.W.; Smyth, J.M.; Walsh, C.P.; Gray, K.; Chin, B.; et al. Mindfulness training and systemic low-grade inflammation in stressed community adults: Evidence from two randomized controlled trials. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0219120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  93. Voss, A.; Bogdanski, M.; Langohr, B.; Albrecht, R.; Sandbothe, M. Mindfulness-based student training leads to a reduction in physiological evaluated stress. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  94. Breit, S.; Kupferberg, A.; Rogler, G.; Hasler, G. Vagus nerve as modulator of the brain-gut axis in psychiatric and inflammatory disorders. Front. Psychiatry 2018, 9, 44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  95. Bonaz, B.; Bazin, T.; Pellissier, S. The vagus nerve at the interface of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Front. Neurosci. 2018, 12, 49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  96. Meerveld, B.G.; Johnson, A.C. Mechanisms of stress-induced visceral pain. J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 2018, 24, 7–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  97. Montalva-Valenzuela, F.; Guzmán-Muñoz, E.; Ferrari, G.; Adsuar, J.C.; Escobar Ruiz, N.; Castillo-Paredes, A. Effects of Buddhist walking meditation, walking meditation or mindful walking on the health of adults and older adults: A Systematic review. Psychiatry Int. 2025, 6, 122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  98. Al-Beltagi, M.; Saeed, N.K.; Bediwy, A.S.; El-Sawaf, Y.; Elbatarny, A.; Elbeltagi, R. Exploring the gut-exercise link: A systematic review of gastrointestinal disorders in physical activity. World J. Gastroenterol. 2025, 31, 106835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  99. Lee, T.-H.; Lee, H.-I.; Roh, H.-T.; Cho, S.-Y. Eight weeks of aerobic exercise training improves fitness, metabolic health, inflammation, and intestinal barrier integrity in overweight and obese women of different age groups. Life 2025, 15, 1752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  100. Bi, L.; Triadafilopoulos, G. Exercise and gastrointestinal function and disease: An evidence-based review of risks and benefits. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2003, 1, 345–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  101. Yun, S.; Seo, Y.; Lee, Y.; Lee, D.T. Gut microbiome related to metabolic diseases after moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise. J. Exerc. Sci. Fit. 2024, 22, 375–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  102. Mohr, A.E.; Mach, N.; Pugh, J.; Grosicki, G.J.; Allen, J.M.; Karl, J.P.; Whisner, C.M. Mechanisms underlying alterations of the gut microbiota by exercise and their role in shaping ecological resilience. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2025, 49, fuaf037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  103. Singh, V.; Lee, G.; Son, H.; Koh, H.; Kim, E.S.; Unno, T.; Shin, J.H. Butyrate producers, “The sentinel of gut”: Their intestinal significance with and beyond butyrate, and prospective use as microbial therapeutics. Front. Microbiol. 2023, 13, 1103836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  104. Ghaffar, T.; Ubaldi, F.; Volpini, V.; Valeriani, F.; Romano Spica, V. The role of gut microbiota in different types of physical activity and their intensity: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports 2024, 12, 221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  105. Cullen, J.M.A.; Shahzad, S.; Dhillon, J. A systematic review on the effects of exercise on gut microbial diversity, taxonomic composition, and microbial metabolites: Identifying research gaps and future directions. Front. Physiol. 2023, 14, 1292673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  106. Neufingerl, N.; Eilander, A. Nutrient intake and status in adults consuming plant-based diets compared to meat-eaters: A systematic review. Nutrients 2021, 14, 29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  107. Hannibal, L.; Lederer, A.K.; Storz, M.A.; Huber, R.; Jacobsen, D.W. Vitamin B12 status and supplementation in plant-based diets. Food Nutr. Bull. 2024, 45, S58–S66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  108. Jun, H.J.; Kim, S.; Jo, G. Age-period-cohort analysis of dietary sodium, potassium, and sodium-to-potassium ratio in Korea. Epidemiol. Health 2025, 47, e2025062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Article Metrics

Citations

Article Access Statistics

Journal Statistics
Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view.
Effectiveness of Supplemental Feeding Combined with Nutrition Education on Child Nutrition Outcomes in Kenya
Previous
Folic Acid Supplementation Adherence During Pregnancy: Evidence from a Cross-Sectional Survey in Italy
Next