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Journal of Eye Movement Research is published by MDPI from Volume 18 Issue 1 (2025). Previous articles were published by another publisher in Open Access under a CC-BY (or CC-BY-NC-ND) licence, and they are hosted by MDPI on mdpi.com as a courtesy and upon agreement with Bern Open Publishing (BOP).

J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 17, Issue 1 (January 2024) – 6 articles

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28 pages, 12311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Role of Flight Phase and Task Difficulty on Low-Time Pilot Performance, Gaze Dynamics and Subjective Situation Awareness During Simulated Flight

by Naila Ayala, Suzanne Kearns, Elizabeth Irving, Shi Cao and Ewa Niechwiej-Szwedo

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2024, 17(1), 1-28; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.17.1.6 - 17 Jun 2024

Viewed by 102

Abstract

Gaze behaviour has been used as a proxy for information processing capabilities that underlie complex skill performance in real-world domains such as aviation. These processes are highly influenced by task requirements, expertise and can provide insight into situation awareness (SA). Little research has been done to examine the extent to which gaze behaviour, task performance and SA are impacted by various task manipulations within the confines of early-stage skill development. Accordingly, the current study aimed to understand the impact of task difficulty on landing performance, gaze behaviour and SA across different phases of flight. Twenty-four low-time (<300 h) pilots completed simulated landing scenarios under visual flight rules conditions. Traditional gaze metrics, entropybased metrics, and blink rate provided meaningful insight about the extent to which information processing is modulated by flight phase and task difficulty. The results also suggested that gaze behavior changes compensated for increased task demands and minimized the impact on task performance. Dynamic gaze analyses were shown to be a robust measure of task difficulty and pilot flight hours. Recommendations for the effective implementation of gaze behaviour metrics and their utility in examining information processing changes are discussed. Full article

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16 pages, 4809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential of a Laser Pointer Contact Lens to Improve the Reliability of Video-Based Eye-Trackers in Indoor and Outdoor Conditions

by François-Maël Robert, Marion Otheguy, Vincent Nourrit and Jean-Louis de Bougrenet de la Tocnaye

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2024, 17(1), 1-16; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.17.1.5 - 16 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 93

Abstract

Many video-based eye trackers rely on detecting and tracking ocular features, a task that can be negatively affected by a number of individual or environmental factors. In this context, the aim of this study was to practically evaluate how the use of a scleral contact lens with two integrated near-infrared lasers (denoted CLP) could improve the tracking robustness in difficult lighting conditions, particularly outdoor ones. We assessed the ability of the CLP (on a model eye) to detect the lasers and to deduce a gaze position with an accuracy better than 1° under four lighting conditions (1 lx, 250 lx, 50 klux and alternating 1 lx /250 lx) on an artificial eye. These results were compared to the ability of a commercial eye tracker (Pupil Core) to detect the pupil on human eyes with a confidence score equal to or greater than 0.9. CLP provided good results in all conditions (tracking accuracy and detection rates). In comparison, the Pupil Core performed well in all indoor conditions (99% detection) but failed in outdoor conditions (9.85% detection). In conclusion, the CLP presents strong potential to improve the reliability of video-based eye-trackers in outdoor conditions by providing easy trackable feature. Full article

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19 pages, 1119 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advancing Dynamic-Time Warp Techniques for Correcting Eye Tracking Data in Reading Source Code

by Naser Al Madi

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2024, 17(1), 1-19; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.17.1.4 - 18 Mar 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 95

Abstract

Background: Automated eye tracking data correction algorithms such as Dynamic-Time Warp always made a trade-off between the ability to handle regressions (jumps back) and distortions (fixation drift). At the same time, eye movement in code reading is characterized by non-linearity and regressions. Objective: In this paper, we present a family of hybrid algorithms that aim to handle both regressions and distortions with high accuracy. Method: Through simulations with synthetic data, we replicate known eye movement phenomena to assess our algorithms against Warp algorithm as a baseline. Furthermore, we utilize two real datasets to evaluate the algorithms in correcting data from reading source code and see if the proposed algorithms generalize to correcting data from reading natural language text. Results: Our results demonstrate that most proposed algorithms match or outperform baseline Warp in correcting both synthetic and real data. Also, we show the prevalence of regressions in reading source code. Conclusion: Our results highlight our hybrid algorithms as an improvement to Dynamic-Time Warp in handling regressions.
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9 pages, 270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Risk Factors Associated with Pre-Myopia Among Primary School Students in the Mianyang Science City

by Yi-bin Deng, Xiao-yin Wang, Li-ge Xiao, Pei li Xu, Hui-Min Wang, Guo-Zhong Zhao, Lian Ye, Da-Wei Men and Mei Yan

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2024, 17(1), 1-9; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.17.1.3 - 18 Mar 2024

Viewed by 133

Abstract

Objectives To find out the prevalence rate of pre-myopia among primary school students in the Mianyang Science City Area, analyze its related risk factors, and thus provide a reference for local authorities to formulate policies on the prevention and control of myopia for primary school students. Methods From September to October 2021, Cluster sampling was adopted by our research group to obtain the vision levels of primary school students employing a diopter test in the Science City Area. In addition, questionnaires were distributed to help us find the risk factors associated with pre-myopia. Through the statistical analysis, we identify the main risk factors for pre-myopia and propose appropriate interventions. Results The prevalence rate of pre-myopia among primary school students in the Science City Area was 45.27% (1020/2253), of which 43.82% were boys and 46.92% were girls, with no statistically significant difference in the prevalence rate of myopia between boys and girls ( 2 = 2.171, p = 0.141). The results of the linear trend test showed that the prevalence rate of pre-myopia tends to decrease with increasing age (Z = 296.521, p = 0.000). Logistic regression analysis demonstrated that the main risk factors for pre-myopia were having at least one parent with myopia, spending less than 2 h a day outdoors, using the eyes continuously for more than 1 hour, looking at electronic screens for more than 2 h, and having an improper reading and writing posture. Conclusion The Science City Area has a high prevalence rate of pre-myopia among primary school students. It is proposed that students, schools, families, and local authorities work together to increase the time spent outdoors, reduce digital screens and develop scientific use of eye habits. Full article

16 pages, 704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SARS-CoV-2 Infection Impairs Oculomotor Functions: A Longitudinal Eye-Tracking Study

by Xiaoting Duan, Zehao Huang, Shuai Zhang, Gancheng Zhu, Rong Wang and Zhiguo Wang

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2024, 17(1), 1-16; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.17.1.2 - 27 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 105

Abstract

Although Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 infection (SARS-CoV-2) is primarily recognized as a respiratory disease, mounting evidence suggests that it may lead to neurological and cognitive impairments. The current study used three eye-tracking tasks (free-viewing, fixation, and smooth pursuit) to assess the oculomotor functions of mild infected cases over six months with symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infected volunteers. Fifty symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infected, and 24 self-reported healthy controls completed the eye-tracking tasks in an initial assessment. Then, 45, and 40 symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infected completed the tasks at 2- and 6-months post-infection, respectively. In the initial assessment, symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infected exhibited impairments in diverse eye movement metrics. Over the six months following infection, the infected reported overall improvement in health condition, except for self-perceived mental health. The eye movement patterns in the free-viewing task shifted toward a more focal processing mode and there was no significant improvement in fixation stability among the infected. A linear discriminant analysis shows that eye movement metrics could differentiate the infected from healthy controls with an accuracy of approximately 62%, even 6 months post-infection. These findings suggest that symptomatic SARSCoV- 2 infection may result in persistent impairments in oculomotor functions, and the employment of eye-tracking technology can offer valuable insights into both the immediate and long-term effects of SARS-CoV-2 infections. Future studies should employ a more balanced research design and leverage advanced machine-learning methods to comprehensively investigate the impact of SARSCoV- 2 infection on oculomotor functions. Full article

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21 pages, 1786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selecting the Appropriate Speed for Rotational Elements in Human-Machine Interfaces: A Quantitative Study

by Mu Tong, Shanguang Chen, Wenzhe Tang, Yu Zhang and Chengqi Xue

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2024, 17(1), 1-21; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.17.1.1 - 29 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 103

Abstract

The motion of rotation, which served as a dynamic symbol within human-computer interfaces, has garnered extensive attention in interface and graphic design. This study aimed to establish speed benchmarks for interface design by exploring visual system preferences for the perception of both simple and complex rotating icons within the velocity range of 5–1800 degrees per second. The research conducted two experiments with 12 participants to examine the observers’ just noticeable difference in speed (JNDS) and perceived speed for rotational icons. Experiment one measured the JNDS over eight-speed levels using a constant stimulus method, achieving a range of 14.9–29%. Building on this, experiment two proposed a sequence of speeds within the given range and used a rating scale method to assess observers' subjective perception of the speed series' rapidity. The findings indicated that speed increases impacted the ability to differentiate between speeds; key points for categorizing low, medium, and high speeds were identified at 10, 180, and 720 degrees/s, respectively. Shape complexity was found to modulate the visual system's perception of actual speed, such that at rotation speeds above 180 degrees/s, complex icons appeared to rotate faster than simpler ones. Most importantly, the study applied quantitative methods and metrology to interface design, offering a more scientific approach to the design workflow. Full article

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J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 17, Issue 1 (January 2024) – 6 articles

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