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Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles
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Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles

A special issue of World Electric Vehicle Journal (ISSN 2032-6653).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2024 | Viewed by 14978

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xiang Chen

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Guest Editor
College of Energy and Power Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
Interests: software maintenance and software testing, such as security vulnerability prediction, software defect prediction, combinatorial testing, regression testing, and fault localization
Dr. Xiangyu Wang

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Guest Editor
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Interests: EV
Dr. Congzhi Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, China
Interests: complex electro-mechanical system and control theory; autonomous driving vehicle dynamics and control

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Vehicle engineering has become an intersectional discipline with the development of electrification, intelligence, networking and sharing technologies. Suitable vehicle system dynamics and advanced control methods are playing an increasingly crucial role in vehicle design. These technologies address mechanical engineering, electronic and electrical engineering, control engineering, signal processing, artificial intelligence, and so on. This Special Issue focuses on advanced vehicle system design, modelling, dynamic analysis, and control methods. Its topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

  1. The advanced modelling and dynamic analysis of vehicle systems and their components, including steering, braking, suspension, chassis systems, and power train;
  2. The application of advanced observation methods for vehicle key dynamic parameters and verification;
  3. The application of intelligent vehicle fusion perception methods, and advanced trajectory planning and control technology;
  4. Human–machine co-driving technology, driver modelling, and analysis of human factor engineering characteristics.
  5. Intelligent connected vehicles and road vehicle collaborative control technology.

Dr. Xiang Chen
Dr. Xiangyu Wang
Dr. Congzhi Liu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. World Electric Vehicle Journal is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 12029 KiB  
Article
Simulation and Analysis of the Energy Consumption of a Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle
by Ying Jiang and Xiangyu He
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(10), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15100436 - 26 Sep 2024
Viewed by 376
Abstract
In the past two decades, people have started to develop efficient, clean and safe transportation vehicles. The development of a fuel cell vehicle has become the focus of attention. First, we analyze the common components of a hybrid electric vehicle with a fuel [...] Read more.
In the past two decades, people have started to develop efficient, clean and safe transportation vehicles. The development of a fuel cell vehicle has become the focus of attention. First, we analyze the common components of a hybrid electric vehicle with a fuel cell. Second, we build a simulation model of the hybrid electric vehicle with a fuel cell. Through the simulation model, we study and analyze the fuel cell and battery under various conditions related to fuel consumption parameters. Through the above-described research, we hope to optimize the parameter structure of the fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle and improve the working efficiency of fuel cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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14 pages, 4612 KiB  
Article
A Simplified 4-DOF Dynamic Model of a Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle
by Lihong Dai, Peng Hu, Tianyou Wang, Guosheng Bian and Haoye Liu
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(9), 390; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15090390 - 28 Aug 2024
Viewed by 510
Abstract
To research the dynamic response of a new type of dedicated transmission for a hybrid electric vehicle, a detailed dynamics model should be built. However, a model with too many degrees of freedom has a negative effect on controller design, which means the [...] Read more.
To research the dynamic response of a new type of dedicated transmission for a hybrid electric vehicle, a detailed dynamics model should be built. However, a model with too many degrees of freedom has a negative effect on controller design, which means the detailed model should be simplified. In this paper, two dynamic models are established. One is an original and detailed powertrain dynamics model (ODPDM), which can capture the transient response, and it is validated that the ODPDM can be used to accurately describe the real vehicle in some specific operating conditions. The other is a simplified torsional vibration dynamics model to study the torsional vibration characteristics of the hybrid electric vehicle. Compared with the full-order model, which is based on the ODPDM, the simplified model has a very similar vibration in low frequency. This study provides a basis for further vibration control of the hybrid powertrain during the process of a driving-mode switch. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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15 pages, 4963 KiB  
Article
Anti-Rollover Trajectory Planning Method for Heavy Vehicles in Human–Machine Cooperative Driving
by Haixiao Wu, Zhongming Wu, Junfeng Lu and Li Sun
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(8), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080328 - 24 Jul 2024
Viewed by 481
Abstract
The existing trajectory planning research mainly considers the safety of the obstacle avoidance process rather than the anti-rollover requirements of heavy vehicles. When there are driving risks such as rollover and collision, how to coordinate the game relationship between the two is the [...] Read more.
The existing trajectory planning research mainly considers the safety of the obstacle avoidance process rather than the anti-rollover requirements of heavy vehicles. When there are driving risks such as rollover and collision, how to coordinate the game relationship between the two is the key technical problem to realizing the anti-rollover trajectory planning under the condition of driving risk triggering. Given the above problems, this paper studies the non-cooperative game model construction method of the obstacle avoidance process that integrates the vehicle driving risk in a complex traffic environment. Then it obtains the obstacle avoidance area that satisfies both the collision and rollover profit requirements based on the Nash equilibrium. A Kmeans-SMOTE risk clustering fusion is proposed in this paper, in which more sampling points are supplemented by the SMOTE oversampling method, and then the ideal obstacle avoidance area is obtained through clustering algorithm fusion to determine the optimal feasible area for obstacle avoidance trajectory planning. On this basis, to solve the convergence problems of the existing multi-objective particle swarm optimization algorithm and analyze the influence of weight parameters and the diversity of the optimization process, this paper proposes an anti-rollover trajectory planning method based on the improved cosine variable weight factor MOPSO algorithm. The simulation results show that the trajectory obtained based on the method proposed in this paper can effectively improve the anti-rollover performance of the controlled vehicle while avoiding obstacles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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24 pages, 7522 KiB  
Article
A Novel Robust H∞ Control Approach Based on Vehicle Lateral Dynamics for Practical Path Tracking Applications
by Jie Wang, Baichao Wang, Congzhi Liu, Litong Zhang and Liang Li
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(7), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15070293 - 30 Jun 2024
Viewed by 663
Abstract
This paper proposes a robust lateral control scheme for the path tracking of autonomous vehicles. Considering the discrepancies between the model parameters and the actual values of the vehicle and the fluctuation of parameters during driving, the norm-bounded uncertainty is utilized to deal [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a robust lateral control scheme for the path tracking of autonomous vehicles. Considering the discrepancies between the model parameters and the actual values of the vehicle and the fluctuation of parameters during driving, the norm-bounded uncertainty is utilized to deal with the uncertainty of model parameters. Because some state variables in the model are difficult to measure, an H∞ observer is designed to estimate state variables and provide accurate state information to improve the robustness of path tracking. An H∞ state feedback controller is proposed to suppress system nonlinearity and uncertainty and produce the desired steering wheel angle to solve the path tracking problem. A feedforward control is designed to deal with road curvature and further reduce tracking errors. In summary, a path tracking method with H∞ performance is established based on the linear matrix inequality (LMI) technique, and the gains in observer and controller can be obtained directly. The hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) test is built to validate the real-time processing performance of the proposed method to ensure excellent practical application potential, and the effectiveness of the proposed control method is validated through the utilization of urban road and highway scenes. The experimental results indicate that the suggested control approach can track the desired trajectory more precisely compared with the model predictive control (MPC) method and make tracking errors within a small range in both urban and highway scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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25 pages, 13280 KiB  
Article
Improved Model Predictive Control Path Tracking Approach Based on Online Updated Algorithm with Fuzzy Control and Variable Prediction Time Domain for Autonomous Vehicles
by Binshan Liu, Zhaoqiang Wang, Hui Guo and Guoxiang Zhang
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(6), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15060257 - 12 Jun 2024
Viewed by 768
Abstract
The design of trajectory tracking controllers for smart driving cars still faces problems, such as uncertain parameters and it being time-consuming. To improve the tracking performance of the trajectory tracking controller and reduce the computation of the controller, this paper proposes an improved [...] Read more.
The design of trajectory tracking controllers for smart driving cars still faces problems, such as uncertain parameters and it being time-consuming. To improve the tracking performance of the trajectory tracking controller and reduce the computation of the controller, this paper proposes an improved model predictive control (MPC) method based on fuzzy control and an online update algorithm. First, a vehicle dynamics model is constructed and a feedforward MPC controller is designed; second, a real-time updating method of the time domain parameters is proposed to replace the previous method of empirically selecting the time domain parameters; lastly, a fuzzy controller is proposed for the real-time adjustment of the weight coefficient matrix of the model predictive controller according to the lateral and heading errors of the vehicle, and a state matrix-based cosine similarity updating mechanism is developed for determining the updating nodes of the state matrix to reduce the controller computation caused by the continuous updating of the state matrix when the longitudinal vehicle speed changes. Finally, the controller is compared with the traditional model prediction controller through the co-simulation of CARSIM and MATLAB/Simulink, and the results show that the controller has great improvement in terms of tracking accuracy and controller computational load. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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20 pages, 5062 KiB  
Article
Adaptive Fuzzy Control of an Electronic Differential Based on the Stability Criterion of the Phase Plane Method
by Shaopeng Zhu, Yekai Xu, Linlin Li, Yong Ren, Chenyang Kuang, Huipeng Chen and Jian Gao
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(6), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15060243 - 31 May 2024
Viewed by 714
Abstract
To improve the handling stability of distributed drive electric vehicles, this paper introduces an electronic differential control strategy based on the stability criterion of the phase plane method. The strategy first plots the distributed electric vehicle’s center of mass side angle and center [...] Read more.
To improve the handling stability of distributed drive electric vehicles, this paper introduces an electronic differential control strategy based on the stability criterion of the phase plane method. The strategy first plots the distributed electric vehicle’s center of mass side angle and center of mass angular speed on the phase plane, and then it analyzes the vehicle’s stability under various working conditions to determine the parameters that ensure the stability performance. Subsequently, an adaptive fuzzy control strategy is employed to achieve fast and accurate distribution of the torque to each wheel, thereby enhancing the vehicle’s stability. A joint simulation platform is constructed using MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim. A comparison with the traditional electronic differential strategy demonstrates that the proposed distribution strategy based on phase plane stability exhibited excellent stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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15 pages, 10322 KiB  
Article
The Performance Enhancement of a Vehicle Suspension System Employing an Electromagnetic Inerter
by Chen Luo, Xiaofeng Yang, Zhihong Jia, Changning Liu and Yi Yang
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(4), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15040162 - 10 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1496
Abstract
As a newly conceived vibration isolation element, an inerter can be implemented in different forms, and it is easily introduced in different vibration isolation scenarios. This paper focuses on a novel inerter device called an electromagnetic inerter (EMI), which combines a linear generator [...] Read more.
As a newly conceived vibration isolation element, an inerter can be implemented in different forms, and it is easily introduced in different vibration isolation scenarios. This paper focuses on a novel inerter device called an electromagnetic inerter (EMI), which combines a linear generator with a fluid inerter. Firstly, the structure and the working principle of the EMI is stated. Then, the parameter sensitivity of the fluid inerter is analyzed, and two parameters that have great influence on the inertance coefficient are obtained. Subsequently, the influence of the change of the external circuit on the output characteristics of the device is also discussed. This proves that the introduction of external circuits can simplify complex mechanical topologies. Finally, the topological structures of vehicle suspension are changed in the form of an EMI (including external circuit), and the dynamic performance of these structures in the typical vibration isolation system of a vehicle’s suspension is obtained. It is found that an L4 layout should be considered as the best suspension structure. Compared with traditional passive suspension, it not only ensures that its handling stability is not weakened, but also reduces the root mean square value of body acceleration and the peak of suspension work space by 4.56% and 11.62%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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30 pages, 23629 KiB  
Article
Advanced Torque Control of Interior Permanent Magnet Motors for Electrical Hypercars
by Ettore Bianco, Sandro Rubino, Massimiliana Carello and Iustin Radu Bojoi
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15020046 - 1 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1613
Abstract
Nowadays, electric vehicles have gained significant attention as a promising solution to the environmental concerns associated with traditional combustion engine vehicles. With the increasing demand for high-performance hypercars, the need for advanced torque control strategies has become paramount. Field-Oriented Control using Current Vector [...] Read more.
Nowadays, electric vehicles have gained significant attention as a promising solution to the environmental concerns associated with traditional combustion engine vehicles. With the increasing demand for high-performance hypercars, the need for advanced torque control strategies has become paramount. Field-Oriented Control using Current Vector Control represents a consolidated solution to implement torque control. However, this kind of control must take into account the DC link voltage variation and the variation of motor parameters depending on the magnets’ temperature while providing the maximum torque production for specific inverter current and voltage limitations. Multidimensional lookup tables are needed to provide a robust torque control from zero speed up to maximum speed under deep flux-weakening operation. Therefore, this article aims to explore the application of FOC 4D control in electrical hypercars and its impact on enhancing their overall performance and control stability. The article will delve into the principles underlying FOC 4D control and its advantages, challenges, and potential solutions to optimize the operation of electric hypercars. An electric powertrain model has been developed in the Simulink environment with the Simscape tool using a S-function block for the implementation of digital control in C-code. High-power electric motor electromagnetic parameters, derived from a Finite Element Method magnetic model, have been used in the simulation. The 4D LUTs have been computed from the motor flux maps and implemented in C-code in the S-function. The choice of FOC 4D control has been validated in the main load points of a hypercar application and compared to the conventional FOC. The final part of the research underlines the benefits of the FOC 4D on reliability, critical in motorsport applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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22 pages, 4195 KiB  
Article
Research on Stability Control Algorithm of Distributed Drive Bus under High-Speed Conditions
by Shaopeng Zhu, Bangxuan Wei, Chen Ping, Minjun Shi, Chen Wang, Huipeng Chen and Minglu Han
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120343 - 12 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1606
Abstract
Aiming at the instability problem of a four-wheel independent drive electric bus under high-speed conditions, this paper first designs a vehicle yaw stability controller based on a linear two-degree-of-freedom model and a linear quadratic programming (LQR) algorithm. A vehicle roll stability controller is [...] Read more.
Aiming at the instability problem of a four-wheel independent drive electric bus under high-speed conditions, this paper first designs a vehicle yaw stability controller based on a linear two-degree-of-freedom model and a linear quadratic programming (LQR) algorithm. A vehicle roll stability controller is then designed based on a linear three-degree-of-freedom model and a model predictive control algorithm (MPC). Moreover, a coordinated control rule based on the lateral load transfer rate (LTR) is designed for the coupled problem of yaw and roll dynamics. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed control algorithm is verified by simulation. The obtained results show that when the vehicle is running at a high speed of 90 km/h, the stability control algorithm can control the yaw rate tracking error within 0.05 rad/s. In addition, the control algorithm can reduce the maximum amplitude of the side slip angle, the maximum value of the roll angle, the maximum value of the roll angular velocity, and the amplitude of the lateral acceleration by more than 96%, 81.1%, 65.0%, and 11.1%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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21 pages, 23381 KiB  
Article
Topological Optimization of Vehicle ISD Suspension under Steering Braking Condition
by Yanling Liu, Dongyin Shi, Fu Du, Xiaofeng Yang and Kerong Zhu
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(10), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14100297 - 18 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1723
Abstract
Anti-roll and anti-pitch are important directions in the comprehensive research of automobiles. In order to improve the anti-roll and anti-pitch performance of the vehicle, an inerter was applied to the vehicle suspension system, and a 14 DOF vehicle nonlinear dynamics model was established. [...] Read more.
Anti-roll and anti-pitch are important directions in the comprehensive research of automobiles. In order to improve the anti-roll and anti-pitch performance of the vehicle, an inerter was applied to the vehicle suspension system, and a 14 DOF vehicle nonlinear dynamics model was established. The influence of the change in inertance in the eight kinds of improved ISD (Inerter-Spring-Damper) suspension structures on the RMS (root mean square) value of performance indexes of roll, vertical, and pitch motion of the vehicle was studied. Based on this, the vehicle’s ISD structure with better performance was selected, and the NSGA-Ⅱ algorithm was adopted to optimize the selected structural parameters. The simulation results showed that the four kinds of suspension hadbetter comprehensive performance, and their structureswere, respectively, excluding the supporting spring in parallel, (1) an inerter in series with a spring and a damper in parallel, (2) a damper in series with a spring and an inerter in parallel, (3) an inerter and a damper in series, and (4) the damper in parallel with a spring and an inerter in series. The ISD suspension structure had better comprehensive performance under step steering braking, which was obviously better than the passive suspension, and effectively improved the vehicle ride comfort, anti-roll and anti-pitch performance. Under the hook steering braking, the lateral load transfer rate was used to evaluate the vehicle’s anti-rollover ability. The results showed that the ride comfort and anti-rollover ability of ISD suspension were better than those of passive suspension. Under the condition of taking into account the anti-pitching ability, the suspension consists of a supporting spring in parallel with an inerter, and a damper in series was better. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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Review

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33 pages, 3019 KiB  
Review
Review of Management System and State-of-Charge Estimation Methods for Electric Vehicles
by Jigar Sarda, Hirva Patel, Yashvi Popat, Kueh Lee Hui and Mangal Sain
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120325 - 27 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3227
Abstract
Energy storage systems (ESSs) are critically important for the future of electric vehicles. Due to the shifting global environment for electrical distribution and consumption, energy storage systems (ESS) are amongst the electrical power system solutions with the fastest growing market share. Any ESS [...] Read more.
Energy storage systems (ESSs) are critically important for the future of electric vehicles. Due to the shifting global environment for electrical distribution and consumption, energy storage systems (ESS) are amongst the electrical power system solutions with the fastest growing market share. Any ESS must have the capacity to regulate the modules from the system in the case of abnormal situations as well as the ability to monitor, control, and maximize the performance of one or more battery modules. Such a system is known as a battery management system (BMS). One parameter that is included in the BMS is the state-of-charge (SOC) of the battery. The BMS is used to enhance battery performance while including the necessary safety measures in the system. SOC estimation is a key BMS feature, and precise modelling and state estimation will improve stable operation. This review discusses the current methods used in BEV LIB SOC modelling and estimation. It also efficiently monitors all of the electrical characteristics of a battery-pack system, including the voltage, current, and temperature. The main function of a BMS is to safeguard a battery system for machine electrification and electric propulsion. The major responsibility of the BMS is to guarantee the trustworthiness and safety of the battery cells coupled to create high currents at high voltage levels. This article examines the advancements and difficulties in (i) cutting-edge battery technology and (ii) cutting-edge BMS for electric vehicles (EVs). This article’s main goal is to outline the key characteristics, benefits and drawbacks, and recent technological developments in SOC estimation methods for a battery. The study follows the pertinent industry standards and addresses the functional safety component that concerns BMS. This information and knowledge will be valuable for vehicle manufacturers in the future development of new SOC methods or an improvement in existing ones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
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