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Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body

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A special issue of Toxics (ISSN 2305-6304). This special issue belongs to the section "Air Pollution and Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 December 2022) | Viewed by 48267

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Dal Woong Choi

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Guest Editor

Department of Health and Safety Convergence Science, Graduate School, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
Interests: toxicology; hazard chemicals; risk assessment; analytical chemistry; indoor pollution

Dr. Kyung-Chul Choi

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Guest Editor

College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Chungbuk, Republic of Korea
Interests: biochemical toxicology; immunotoxicity; toxic mechanism; cancer biology
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Human exposure to hazardous chemicals occurs in a variety of environments, and most of these exposures occur in indoor environments where people stay for the longest time. Consumer products, tobacco products and household products can release a large number of hazardous chemicals, to which humans can be exposed directly while human use or indirectly via contaminated air or dust. Despite high possibility of exposure, information related to chemical composition in consumer products is often incomplete or unavailable. Therefore, it is very important to quantitatively assess the exposure to these indoor hazardous chemicals and their toxicity.

This Special Issue focuses on the estimation of chemical exposure and the toxicity assessment of indoor hazardous chemicals. In this Special Issue, we would like to bring readers closer to the state-of-the-art in the field of chemical toxicology by gathering papers that cover important of detrimental effects of these hazardous chemicals in cellular and animal models. In addition, we welcome analytical studies to determine the harmful constituents of consumer products, tobacco products and household products. Authors are invited to submit original research, reviews, short communications, and commentaries.

Dr. Dal Woong Choi
Dr. Kyung-Chul Choi
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

indoor hazardous chemicals
hazard identification
exposure assessment
risk assessment
toxicology
analytical methods
consumer products
tobacco products
household chemicals
experimental toxicology

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 1675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxicological Assessment of Particulate and Metal Hazards Associated with Vaping Frequency and Device Age

by Jennifer Jeon, Qian Zhang, Patrick S. Chepaitis, Roby Greenwald, Marilyn Black and Christa Wright

Toxics 2023, 11(2), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020155 - 7 Feb 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5858

Abstract

Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) aerosols are complex mixtures of chemicals, metals, and particles that may present inhalation hazards and adverse respiratory health risks. Despite being considered a safer alternative to tobacco cigarettes, metal exposure levels and respiratory effects associated with device aging and vaping frequency have not been fully characterized. In this study, we utilize an automated multi-channel ENDS aerosol generation system (EAGS) to generate aerosols from JUUL pod-type ENDS using tobacco-flavored e-liquid. Aerosol puff fractions (1–50) and (101–150) are monitored and sampled using various collection media. Extracted aerosols are prepared for metal and toxicological analysis using human primary small airway epithelial cells (SAEC). ENDS aerosol-mediated cellular responses, including reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress, cell viability, and DNA damage, are evaluated after 24 h and 7-day exposures. Our results show higher particle concentrations in later puff fractions (0.135 mg/m³) than in initial puff fractions (0.00212 mg/m³). Later puff fraction aerosols contain higher toxic metal concentrations, including chromium, copper, and lead, which elicit increased levels of ROS followed by significant declines in total glutathione and cell viability. Notably, a 30% increase in DNA damage was observed after 7 days because of later puff fraction exposures. This work is consistent with ENDS aerosols becoming more hazardous across the use of pre-filled pod devices, which may threaten respiratory health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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14 pages, 2148 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterization of an Electronic Nicotine Delivery System (ENDS) Aerosol Generation Platform to Determine Exposure Risks

by Qian Zhang, Jennifer Jeon, Travis Goldsmith, Marilyn Black, Roby Greenwald and Christa Wright

Toxics 2023, 11(2), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020099 - 21 Jan 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3492

Abstract

Evaluating vaping parameters that influence electronic nicotine delivery system (ENDS) emission profiles and potentially hazardous exposure levels is essential to protecting human health. We developed an automated multi-channel ENDS aerosol generation system (EAGS) for characterizing size-resolved particle emissions across pod- and mod-type devices using real-time monitoring instruments, an exposure chamber, and vaping parameters including different ventilation rates, device type and age, e-liquid formulation, and atomizer setup. Results show the ENDS device type, e-liquid flavoring, and nicotine content can affect particle emissions. In general, pod-type devices have unimodal particle size distributions and higher number emissions, while mod-type devices have bimodal size distributions and higher mass emissions. For pod-type devices, later puff fractions emit lower aerosols, which is potentially associated with the change of coil resistance and power during ageing. For a mod-type device, an atomizer with a lower resistance coil and higher power generates larger particle emissions than an atomizer with a greater resistance coil and lower power. The unventilated scenario produces higher particle emission factors, except for particle mass emission from pod-type devices. The data provided herein indicate the EAGS can produce realistic and reproducible puff profiles of pod- and mod-type ENDS devices and therefore is a suitable platform for characterizing ENDS-associated exposure risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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11 pages, 2462 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disposition of Aerosols of Isothiazolinone-Biocides: BIT, MIT and OIT

by Seungmi Lee, Heui-Jin Park, Eunice B. Lee, Do Hyeon Lee, Dalwoong Choi and Kyung-Min Lim

Toxics 2022, 10(12), 770; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10120770 - 10 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3691

Abstract

Biocides are widely used in everyday life, and accordingly, human exposure to them is inevitable. Especially, the inhalational exposure of humans to biocides and resultant respiratory toxicity are gaining public interest due to the recent catastrophe associated with humidifier disinfectants. Aerosolized chemicals are subject to gravitational deposition and chemical degradation. Therefore, the characterization of the disposition of aerosols is essential to estimate the inhalational exposure to biocides. Here, we compared the disposition of aerosols of one of the commonly used biocide classes, isothiazolinone-based biocides, BIT, MIT, and OIT. An acrylic chamber (40 cm × 40 cm × 50 cm) was created to simulate the indoor environment, and a vacuum pump was used to create airflow (1 LPM). Biocides were sprayed from a vertical nebulizer placed on the ceiling of the chamber, and the distribution of particle sizes and volume was measured using the Optical Particle Sizer (OPS) 3330 device. During and after the aerosol spraying, airborne biocides and those deposited on the surface of the chamber were sampled to measure the deposition using LC-MS/MS. As a result, the broad particle size distribution was observed ranging from 0.3 to 8 μm during the nebulization. The inhalable particle faction (>2 μm) of the isothiazolinones was 32–67.9% in number but 1.2 to 6.4% in volume. Most of the aerosolized biocides were deposited on the chamber’s surface while only a minimal portion was airborne (<1%) after the nebulization. More importantly, significant amounts of MIT and OIT were degraded during aerosolization, resulting in poor total recovery compared to BIT (31%, 71% vs. 97% BIT). This result suggests that some isothiazolinones may become unstable during nebulization, affecting their disposition and human exposure significantly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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12 pages, 2108 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommunication

Evaluation of Skin Irritation of Acids Commonly Used in Cleaners in 3D-Reconstructed Human Epidermis Model, KeraSkin^TM

by Jee-hyun Hwang, Seungmi Lee, Ho Geon Lee, Dalwoong Choi and Kyung-Min Lim

Toxics 2022, 10(10), 558; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10100558 - 24 Sep 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5876

Abstract

Cleaners such as dishwashing liquids contain various chemicals that cause skin damage. Alkaline agents used in cleaners alter the lipid composition of the skin and damage the skin barrier. However, little is known about the effects of acids used in cleaners on the skin. Here, we investigated the effects of acidic pH on the skin and evaluated the skin irritation of acids commonly used in cleaners with a 3D-reconstructed human epidermis model, KeraSkin^TM, according to OECD TG439. First, to examine the effects of acidic pH, we evaluated the skin irritation of citrate buffers (0.1 M, McIlvaine buffer) prepared in a wide pH range (pH 1.5–6.0). Surprisingly, cell viability was not significantly affected even at pH 1.5, reflecting that the acidity alone may not be sufficient to induce skin irritation. Even after longer exposure (180 min), the cell viability was not reduced below 50%, a cutoff to determine an irritant. To examine the effect of the anionic part, several organic acids used in cleaners (citric acid, glycolic acid, lactic acid, malic acid, and succinic acid) were examined. These organic acids also failed to reduce viability at 0.1 M. However, at 1 M, most of the acids tested, except lactic acid, were determined to be skin irritants. Histology further supported the skin irritancy of acids at 1 M. Similarly, inorganic acids (hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid) were determined to be irritants only at 1 M. In the case of alkaline agents, pH and concentrations were also important factors to determine the skin irritancy, although the epidermal structure and lipids were more damaged than acids. Collectively, we demonstrated that both the pH and concentration are important factors for the skin irritancy of acids, shedding an important insight into the mechanism of skin irritation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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9 pages, 843 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Thirdhand Smoke Exposure after Short Visits to Public Facilities (Noraebang and Internet Cafés): A Prospective Cohort Study

by Myung-Bae Park and Boram Sim

Toxics 2022, 10(6), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10060307 - 7 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2618

Abstract

We aimed to evaluate the degree of thirdhand smoke (THS) caused by short-term exposure to smoking-related substances. To this end, we evaluated the change in concentration of a smoking-related urine biomarker in volunteers before and after visiting public spaces where there is likely THS exposure. We hypothesized that a visit to such public spaces would result in an increase in such biomarkers. Participants visited one of the predetermined facilities (noraebang, PC café) and revisited the same facility after 24 h, spending around 2 h per visit. We selected creatinine-corrected urine cotinine (CUC) as a biomarker to evaluate THS. In addition, we collected nicotine-derived nitrosamine ketone (NNK) from surface dust at each site with cotton swabs (diameter of 2.5 cm). We examined whether CUC concentration significantly changed across three time points (baseline, first visit, and second visit) via repeated-measures analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA). Moreover, we analyzed the interaction to determine whether cigarette smell affects the CUC concentration. Finally, CUC and dust NNK were analyzed with Pearson’s correlation. The CUC concentration did not increase from baseline to the first visit, but increased from the baseline to the second visit (Diff = Ln [0.565] ng/mg, P < 0.01). Further, the CUC concentration increased from the first to the second visit (Diff = Ln [0.393] ng/mg, p < 0.01). In the case of the interaction effect, there were statistically significant differences in CUC concentration depending on the smell of smoke in the facility (Diff = Ln [0.325], F value = 4.438, p value = 0.041). The change in CUC concentration from baseline to the second visit (r = 0.562, p < 0.001) and from the first to the second visit (r = 0.544, p < 0.001) were correlated with NNK concentration. We evaluated whether a short stay in a facility with smoke-related substances that adhere to the surrounding environment would expose individuals to THS even if they do not smell or are directly exposed to cigarette smoke. We confirmed that even two relatively short stays (approximately 2 h each) in a facility in which people had previously smoked can lead to THS exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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15 pages, 1438 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effect of Cosmetics Use on the In Vitro Skin Absorption of a Biocide, 1,2-Benzisothiazolin-3-one

by Yoonjung Huh, Do-Hyeon Lee, Dalwoong Choi and Kyung-Min Lim

Toxics 2022, 10(3), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10030108 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3897

Abstract

1,2-Benzisothiazolin-3-one (BIT) is a commonly used organic biocide containing an isothiazolone ring. However, it may have adverse effects on human health and its risk needs to be properly evaluated. Dermal exposure is the main route of BIT exposure, and co-exposed substances may affect its absorption. The dermal permeation profile of BIT has not been well-studied. This study aimed to investigate the dermal permeation profiles of BIT with or without cosmetic use. Dermal permeation profiles of BIT were investigated after infinite- (100 μg/cm²), or a finite-dose (10 μg/cm²) application with or without cosmetics using a minipig skin and Strat-M^®, an artificial membrane. A cream, lotion, and essence (namely, face serum) were pre-treated as representative cosmetics on minipig skin for 30 min, with BIT treatment afterward. After the treatment, BIT left on the skin surface was collected by cotton swabbing, BIT in the stratum corneum, by sequential tape stripping, and BIT retained in the remaining skin was extracted after cutting the skin into pieces before LC-MS/MS analysis. When an infinite dose was applied, permeation coefficients (K_p, cm/h) for minipig skin and Strat-M^® were 2.63 × 10⁻³ and 19.94 × 10⁻³, respectively, reflecting that skin permeation was seven to eight times higher in Strat-M^® than in the minipig skin. BIT, in the presence of cosmetics, rapidly permeated the skin, while the amount in the stratum corneum and skin deposit was reduced. We performed a risk assessment of dermally applied BIT in the absence or presence of cosmetics by calculating the skin absorption rate at 10 h based on the toxicological data from several references. The risk level was higher in the presence of essence as compared to lotion, which was higher than cream, which was higher than the control (non-treated). However, all of the margins of safety values obtained were greater than 100, suggesting that BIT is safe for use in dermally exposed consumer products. We believe that this research contributes to a greater understanding of the risk assessment of isothiazolinone biocides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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16 pages, 1887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Emission of VOCs and CO from Heated Tobacco Products, Electronic Cigarettes, and Conventional Cigarettes, and Their Health Risk

by Fengju Lu, Miao Yu, Chaoxian Chen, Lijun Liu, Peng Zhao, Boxiong Shen and Ran Sun

Toxics 2022, 10(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10010008 - 28 Dec 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5193

Abstract

The differences in aerosol composition between new tobacco types (heated tobacco products and electronic cigarettes) and conventional cigarettes have not been systematically studied. In this study, the emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), nicotine, and tar from heated tobacco products (HTPs), electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) and conventional cigarettes were compared, and their health risks were evaluated by applying the same smoking regime and a loss mechanism of smoking. Twenty VOCs were identified in aerosols from HTPs, 18 VOCs were identified in aerosols from e-cigarettes, and 97 VOCs were identified in aerosols from cigarettes by GC–MS and HPLC analysis. The concentrations of total VOCs (TVOCs) emitted by the three types of tobacco products decreased as follows: e-cigarettes (795.4 mg/100 puffs) > cigarettes (83.29 mg/100 puffs) > HTPs (15.65 mg/100 puffs). The nicotine content was 24.63 ± 2.25 mg/100 puffs for e-cigarettes, 22.94 ± 0.03 mg/100 puffs for cigarettes, and 8.817 ± 0.500 mg/100 puffs for HTPs. When using cigarettes of the same brand, the mass concentrations of VOCs, tar, and CO emitted by HTPs were approximately 81.2%, 95.9%, and 97.5%, respectively, lower than the amounts emitted by cigarettes. The health risk results demonstrated that the noncarcinogenic risk of the three types of tobacco products decreased as follows: cigarettes (3609.05) > HTPs (2449.70) > acceptable level (1) > e-cigarettes (0.91). The lifetime cancer risk (LCR) decreased as follows: cigarettes (2.99 × 10⁻⁴) > HTPs (9.92 × 10⁻⁵) > e-cigarettes (4.80 × 10⁻⁵) > acceptable level (10⁻⁶). In general, HTPs and e-cigarettes were less harmful than cigarettes when the emission of VOCs and CO was considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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14 pages, 1084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fast and Environment-Friendly GC-MS Method for Eleven Organophosphorus Flame Retardants in Indoor Air, Dust, and Skin Wipes

by Chung-Yu Chen, Yu-Hsuan Liu, Chia-Hui Chieh and Wei-Hsiang Chang

Toxics 2021, 9(12), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9120350 - 11 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3720

Abstract

Organophosphorus based flame retardants (OPFRs) extensively used as alternatives to banned polybrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane have been garnering interest due to the possibility that these compounds may have less significant impact on human and environmental health. Long pretreatment time, larger consumption of organic solvents, matrix interferents, and cross-contamination were found in previous studies while assessing OPFRs in indoor environments. We developed and optimized the extraction methods and simultaneous analysis of 11 OPFRs in indoor air, dust and skin wipe samples using the GC-MS approach. The proposed methods were validated using a standard addition approach, dust SRM 2585 and the real samples. Our procedures enabled the analyst to effectively limit coextracted interferences and simultaneous analytical methods of 11 target OPFRs for three matrices were achieved. The validation was performed according to standard guidelines (relative errors were identified by the analytes: −19% to 18% for indoor air, −11% to 14% for house dust, −15% to 16% for skin wipe). Good practices for quality assurance and quality control were well stated. The current high-Eco-scored methods could be categorized as “an excellent green analysis”. All analytes for the target OPFRs were detected in the real samples of indoor air, house dust and skin wipe collected from ten Taiwanese homes. Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate, tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate and tris(chloroisopropyl) phosphate were the most abundant OPFRs. Rapid, green and cost-effective GC-MS methods were developed and validated for the analysis of eleven OPFRs in indoor air, house dust and skin wipes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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17 pages, 8320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ChemSkin Reference Chemical Database for the Development of an In Vitro Skin Irritation Test

by Juhee Han, Ga-Young Lee, Green Bae, Mi-Jeong Kang and Kyung-Min Lim

Toxics 2021, 9(11), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9110314 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3869

Abstract

Since the animal test ban on cosmetics in the EU in 2013, alternative in vitro safety tests have been actively researched to replace in vivo animal tests. For the development and evaluation of a new test method, reference chemicals with quality in vivo data are essential to assess the predictive capacity and applicability domain. Here, we compiled a reference chemical database (ChemSkin DB) for the development and evaluation of new in vitro skin irritation tests. The first candidates were selected from 317 chemicals (source data n = 1567) searched from the literature from the last 20 years, including previous validation study reports, ECETOC, and published papers. Chemicals showing inconsistent classification or those that were commercially unavailable, difficult or dangerous to handle, prohibitively expensive, or without quality in vivo or in vitro data were removed, leaving a total of 100 chemicals. Supporting references, in vivo Draize scores, UN GHS/EU CLP classifications and commercial sources were compiled. Test results produced by the approved methods of OECD Test No. 439 were included and compared using the classification table, scatter plot, and Pearson correlation analysis to identify the false predictions and differences between in vitro skin irritation tests. These results may provide an insight into the future development of new in vitro skin irritation tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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19 pages, 1621 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparison of EI-GC-MS/MS, APCI-LC-MS/MS, and ESI-LC-MS/MS for the Simultaneous Analysis of Nine Nitrosamines Eluted from Synthetic Resins into Artificial Saliva and Health Risk Assessment

by Hyungsoo Kim, Daekwan Sung, Honghyeon Yu, Daeyong Jang, Yeji Koo, Seungha Lee, Kyungmin Lim and Dalwoong Choi

Toxics 2021, 9(10), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9100230 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4990

Abstract

Nitrosamines can be produced during the manufacture of rubber-type products such as pacifiers or the nipples of baby bottles. Humans can be exposed to the nitrosamines in these products when they are eluted into saliva. In this study, we compared the efficiency of electron impact ionization (EI), atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI), and electrospray ionization (ESI) methods for the analysis of nine nitrosamines eluted into artificial saliva. In addition, nine nitrosamines eluted from 54 rubber-type products (rubber, thermoplastic elastomer, thermoplastic polyurethane, and polyurethane) marketed in Korea were monitored. Finally, non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk assessments of oral exposure to nine nitrosamines were performed based on the monitoring results. EI-GC-MS/MS performed the best for the simultaneous analysis of these nine nitrosamines with respect to overall linearity, trace analysis limit of detection (less than 1 μg), recovery (average 108.66 ± 9.32%), and precision (less than 6%), compared with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) (APCI and ESI) methods. Using the EI-GC-MS/MS method, these nine nitrosamines eluted into artificial saliva from 54 rubber-type products were monitored. Based on the monitoring data, risk assessment was performed by calculating the margin of exposure (MOE) for the respective nitrosamines detected. As a result, these nitrosamines were confirmed to be safe with regard to both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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15 pages, 1842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Exposure to Wood Smoke Increases the Expression of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines, Gelatinases, and TIMPs in Guinea Pigs

by Carlos Ramos, Rebeca Cañedo-Mondragón, Carina Becerril, Georgina González-Ávila, Ana Laura Esquivel, Ana Lilia Torres-Machorro and Martha Montaño

Toxics 2021, 9(9), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9090227 - 20 Sep 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3542

Abstract

Exposure to air pollutants in wildfire smoke and indoor pollution causes lung diseases. Short-term exposure to wood smoke (WS) is partially known to alter the expression of human matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), inflammatory cytokines, and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Accordingly, we investigated the effect of exposing guinea pigs to WS for two and four three-hour periods on different days. The daily content of particles reported by indoor pollution was produced by 60 g of pinewood. We analyzed the cell profile and collagen content in bronchoalveolar lavages (BAL). The mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, MMPs, and TIMPs was studied in lung tissue. Cytokines and gelatinolytic activity were analyzed in BAL and serum. The results showed that total cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and collagen increased in BAL, whereas neutrophils and lymphocytes decreased. TGF-β1, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 were upregulated in lungs, downregulating IL-12. TNF-α, IFN-γ, TGF-β1, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 were increased in BAL and serum, decreasing IL-12. Gelatinase activity was increased in serum. Thus, guinea pigs exposed to short-term domestic doses of WS overexpressed pro-inflammatory cytokines, MMPs, and TIMPs. These results are similar to ECM remodeling and pulmonary and systemic inflammation reported in humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Indoor Hazardous Chemicals and Harmful Impacts on Human Body)

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