Toxics

15 pages, 3747 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ozone Exposure Induces Pulmonary Microbiota Dysbiosis and Associated Inflammatory Responses in Mice

by Ya Wang, Laibao Zhuo, Yue Du, Yuxuan Chai, Jiayin Li, Keyang Han, Juan Li and Weidong Wu

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 736; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080736 - 21 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Ozone (O₃) is a prevalent environmental pollutant that can induce oxidative stress and respiratory epithelial injury. Dysregulation of pulmonary microbiota homeostasis plays an important role in the progression of lung damage and inflammatory responses. However, there remains a lack of systematic [...] Read more.

Ozone (O₃) is a prevalent environmental pollutant that can induce oxidative stress and respiratory epithelial injury. Dysregulation of pulmonary microbiota homeostasis plays an important role in the progression of lung damage and inflammatory responses. However, there remains a lack of systematic research on the effects of O₃ exposure on pulmonary microecology and its potential association with pulmonary inflammation. In this study, twenty-three SPF-grade C57BL/6N male mice (aged 6–7 weeks) were randomly divided into a filtered air control group (n = 11) and an O₃ exposure group (n = 12). Mice in the O₃ group underwent whole-body inhalation exposure to 1 ppm O₃ for 4 h daily over 8 consecutive weeks, while control mice were maintained under identical conditions with filtered air exposure. The 1 ppm concentration (equivalent to 0.2–0.3 ppm in humans) and 8-week daily 4 h exposure regimen was selected to model the 2-month summer high-O₃ season with typical afternoon O₃ peaks. The results showed that the O₃-exposed group exhibited marked inflammatory infiltrates in the lung, as well as significantly elevated macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids compared with controls. Pulmonary microbiota sequencing revealed that O₃ exposure significantly elevated the Shannon index of pulmonary microbiota in mice, and four differential genera including Deinococcus, Aerococcus, Enterococcus and Proteiniphilum were identified. Correlation analysis revealed that MIP-2 was significantly correlated with Aerococcus. In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that exposure to O₃ induces inflammation and significant changes in the microbial composition of the lungs, which provides an experimental basis for further investigating mechanisms linking microbiota dysbiosis to lung injury triggered by ambient air pollutants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ozone Pollution and Adverse Health Impacts)

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22 pages, 2002 KB

Open AccessArticle

Urinary Biomonitoring and Risk Prioritization of Traditional and Emerging Neonicotinoids in School-Aged Children, South China

by Pan Zhu, Ling-Chuan Guo, Xuan Liu, Junwei Yang, Guangning Su, Jing Deng, Xiuhua Zhong, Chaoyang Long, Jingguang Li and Shengbing Yu

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 735; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080735 - 21 Aug 2026

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Abstract

The widespread use of neonicotinoids (NEOs) poses a significant risk to school-aged children. However, critical knowledge gaps remain regarding their comprehensive exposure profiles and associated health risks. This study assessed the co-exposure levels and non-carcinogenic risks of 16 NEOs (including both traditional and [...] Read more.

The widespread use of neonicotinoids (NEOs) poses a significant risk to school-aged children. However, critical knowledge gaps remain regarding their comprehensive exposure profiles and associated health risks. This study assessed the co-exposure levels and non-carcinogenic risks of 16 NEOs (including both traditional and emerging compounds) in 184 school-aged children recruited from a typical rural and urban area of South China. The sum concentrations of 16 NEOs (∑₁₆NEOs) ranged from 0.648 to 227 μg/L (median: 8.99 μg/L). The predominant compounds were clothianidin (CLO, 1.93 μg/L), N-desmethyl-acetamiprid (N-dm-ACE, 1.64 μg/L), thiamethoxam (THM, 0.792 μg/L), and dinotefuran (DIN, 0.222 μg/L). To our knowledge, this is the first report of emerging NEOs—paichongding (IPP), sulfoxaflor (SUL), and flonicamid (FLO)—in children urine, with detection frequencies of 11.4%, 68.2%, and 53.4%, respectively. Significant rural–urban disparities in urinary concentrations were observed. The metabolite-to-parent ratios (e.g., N-dm-ACE/ACE, 5-OH-IMI/IMI, and THCP-AM/THCP) may serve as a useful biomarker for assessing human exposure to NEOs, as it provides valuable insight into the metabolic fate of the target compounds and aids in distinguishing exposure pathways. The median estimated daily intake (EDI) values for CLO, N-dm-ACE, THM, and ∑₁₂NEOs were 0.127, 0.117, 0.046, and 0.696 μg/kg-bw/day, respectively. Although the hazard quotient for individual compounds was below 1 for vast majority of school-aged children, cumulative exposure assessment indicated that 1.09% of participants had a hazard quotient exceeding 1 for both IMI_eq and ∑₁₂NEOs, suggesting potential health concerns under co-exposure scenarios. Using a multi-criteria Toxicological Priority Index (ToxPi) model, CLO, THM, thiacloprid-amid (THCP-AM), and N-dm-ACE were identified as the high-priority compounds requiring regulatory attention in children’s environmental health. This study provides the first comprehensive biomonitoring and ToxPi-based prioritization of both traditional and emerging NEOs in school-aged children in South China. The findings highlight the urgent need for continued monitoring, refined mixture risk assessment, and regulatory consideration of emerging substitutes and their metabolites, which are not adequately covered by current safety guidelines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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33 pages, 2027 KB

Open AccessReview

Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Microcystin-LR in Mammals

by Youngran Ku, Sooyeon Park and Changwon Yang

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 734; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080734 - 21 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms have increased globally, likely in part due to climate change and anthropogenic eutrophication, elevating exposure of humans and other terrestrial and aquatic animals to cyanotoxins through drinking water, food chains, and recreational activities. Microcystin-LR (MC-LR), the most prevalent microcystin [...] Read more.

Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms have increased globally, likely in part due to climate change and anthropogenic eutrophication, elevating exposure of humans and other terrestrial and aquatic animals to cyanotoxins through drinking water, food chains, and recreational activities. Microcystin-LR (MC-LR), the most prevalent microcystin congener, is well known for its hepatotoxicity, yet accumulating evidence indicates that it also exerts reproductive and developmental toxicity in mammals. This review summarizes recent experimental and epidemiological studies indicating that MC-LR disrupts reproductive function through direct cellular injury to germ and somatic cells, dysregulation of gonadal steroidogenesis, and impairment of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. In males, MC-LR disrupts spermatogenesis and sperm quality, while in females it impairs oocyte competence, uterine receptivity, and placental function, leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Importantly, exposure during critical developmental windows can influence developmental trajectories and contribute to long-term, multi-organ dysfunction in offspring via endocrine imbalance and epigenetic reprogramming. Mechanistically, MC-LR toxicity involves convergent oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammatory signaling, DNA damage, and chromatin remodeling. Collectively, these findings indicate that reproductive and developmental toxicity should be considered in assessments of the health risks associated with MC-LR and support the incorporation of reproductive endpoints into human health and ecological risk assessment frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity)

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33 pages, 820 KB

Open AccessReview

Functional Materials for the Remediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils: A Review

by Chenqi Peng, Bowen Wang, Han Cheng, Ning Li and Yuhong Su

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 733; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080733 - 20 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Soil arsenic contamination is an increasingly serious global environmental problem that poses substantial risks to environmental safety and human health. With ongoing advances in green remediation technologies, functional materials have become important for the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils because of their tailored remediation [...] Read more.

Soil arsenic contamination is an increasingly serious global environmental problem that poses substantial risks to environmental safety and human health. With ongoing advances in green remediation technologies, functional materials have become important for the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils because of their tailored remediation properties and potential for engineering application. This review systematically examines the remediation performance of functional materials derived from carbon-based materials, natural polymers, metals and metal oxides, and industrial solid wastes. The performance characteristics, modification approaches, and arsenic immobilization mechanisms are also summarized. Finally, recommendations and future directions for the development of functional materials for arsenic-contaminated soil remediation are provided to guide further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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17 pages, 8230 KB

Open AccessArticle

Heavy Metal-Induced Genotoxic Damage in Chelon auratus: Evidence from a Coastal Gulf Ecosystem

by Cemal Turan, Aysegul Ergenler, Zeynep Ayad Koç and Funda Turan

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 732; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080732 - 19 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Estuarine and river-influenced coastal ecosystems are recognized as important sinks and channels for transfer of heavy metals into the marine environment. Continuous intake of metal pollutants could create chronic exposure situations, perhaps leading to molecular and cellular damage to resident biota, even if [...] Read more.

Estuarine and river-influenced coastal ecosystems are recognized as important sinks and channels for transfer of heavy metals into the marine environment. Continuous intake of metal pollutants could create chronic exposure situations, perhaps leading to molecular and cellular damage to resident biota, even if environmental concentrations are within regulatory limits. Thus, the incorporation of molecular and genotoxicity biomarkers into environmental monitoring programs has received growing interest, as changes in gene expression are among the earliest detectable responses to pollutant stress and may precede genotoxic effects, including DNA damage, at higher or prolonged levels of contaminant exposure. The present study aimed to determine the levels of heavy metals in the coastal zone where the Deliçay River flows into the Gulf of Iskenderun in the extreme northeastern Mediterranean Sea, Türkiye, and to investigate the genotoxic effects in the euryhaline ray-finned fish golden grey mullet (Chelon auratus). In this study, seasonal water samples (n = 3 per site per season) and C. auratus specimens (n = 10 per site per season; total n = 80) were collected from a reference site and the Deliçay estuary. Water samples were analyzed for metals (cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn)) and fish samples were analyzed with the micronucleus (MN) test for determining nuclear abnormalities and the comet test for DNA damage levels. The concentrations of Fe, Zn, and Pb in seawater exceeded the Criterion Continuous Concentration (CCC) thresholds during the summer and autumn seasons, as well as in terms of annual mean values, indicating a potential chronic ecological risk to marine organisms. From the results of the micronucleus test performed in the present study, the highest MN frequencies (10.16 ± 0.15%) and other erythrocytic nuclear anomalies [kidney-shaped (10.36 ± 0.32%), binucleated (14.20 ± 0.10%), notched (14.63 ± 0.20%), lobed (15.43 ± 0.11%), and budded (15.33 ± 0.15%)] were found along the studied coastal zone in summer season. Results of the comet test, supporting the micronucleus test results, showed the highest percentages of DNA damage determined in all seasons in the gill and liver tissues of fish sampled in the studied coastal zone. This study is the first to evaluate the effects of heavy metal-induced genotoxic stress on ecological integrity in this coastal zone using a biomarker-based approach, and the results underscore the need for comprehensive environmental monitoring and pollution reduction strategies to protect ecosystem health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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21 pages, 2998 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coexistence of Microplastics and Heavy Metals in Lake Sediments: Interaction Mechanisms and Complex Ecological Risks

by Jiahui Mi, Junping Lu, Zhuo Li and Yongqin Jia

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 731; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080731 - 18 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Lake sediments act as important sinks for heavy metals and microplastics, yet the mechanisms governing their enrichment, coexistence, and combined ecological risks remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated sediments from Daihai Lake, China, systematically characterizing the occurrence features of microplastics (morphology, size, and [...] Read more.

Lake sediments act as important sinks for heavy metals and microplastics, yet the mechanisms governing their enrichment, coexistence, and combined ecological risks remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated sediments from Daihai Lake, China, systematically characterizing the occurrence features of microplastics (morphology, size, and composition) and their associated heavy metal contents. A composite pollution risk framework (Multi Feature Potential Ecological Risk Index) was developed to evaluate microplastics–heavy metals interactions using correlation analysis, principal component analysis, and cluster analysis. In addition, a two-dimensional pollution index was applied to assess combined ecological risks. Results showed that MP abundance ranged from 6.60 to 26.80 n·g⁻¹, with a decreasing trend from southwest to northeast. Microplastics were dominated by fragments, with a high proportion of small particles (<0.25 mm), and were mainly composed of polyethylene terephthalate and polypropylene. The average concentrations of heavy metals in sediments were ranked as follows: Mn (863 ± 78 mg·kg⁻¹); Cr (124 ± 28 mg·kg⁻¹); Zn (86 ± 17 mg·kg⁻¹); Ni (43 ± 10 mg·kg⁻¹); Cu (36 ± 0.1 mg·kg⁻¹); Pb (23 ± 5 mg·kg⁻¹); As (15 ± 4 mg·kg⁻¹); and Cd (0.20 ± 0.04 mg·kg⁻¹). The two-dimensional comprehensive index values ranged from 124 to 1032, with an average value of 365.0, exceeding the risk threshold (>100). Approximately 70% of sampling sites exhibited high composite pollution risks. Small-sized and fibrous microplastics showed significant positive correlations with multiple heavy metals, indicating strong carrier effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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39 pages, 5266 KB

Open AccessReview

Microplastics-Mediated Behavior of Potentially Toxic Elements in Plant–Soil Systems: Adsorption, Bioavailability, and Phytotoxicity

by Shaohong You, Kaiyang Ying, Songhao Zhang, Caixing Lai, Habib Ullah, Ahmed Mahmoud Ismail and Guo Yu

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 730; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080730 - 17 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) and potentially toxic elements (PTEs) increasingly co-occur in agricultural and peri-urban soils, yet their combined effects on adsorption, mobility, bioavailability, and phytotoxicity are highly context-dependent. This review synthesizes plant–soil evidence by focusing on the interacting roles of MP polymer type, particle [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) and potentially toxic elements (PTEs) increasingly co-occur in agricultural and peri-urban soils, yet their combined effects on adsorption, mobility, bioavailability, and phytotoxicity are highly context-dependent. This review synthesizes plant–soil evidence by focusing on the interacting roles of MP polymer type, particle size and shape, aging/weathering state, soil geochemistry, dissolved organic matter, and rhizosphere processes. Across the reported studies, MP-PTE interactions show several major directions of changes: MPs may reduce PTE lability by promoting adsorption, aggregation, or sequestration within coated surfaces and soil aggregates; conversely, they may increase PTE mobility and plant exposure when reversible binding, dissolved organic ligands, pH shifts, or particle transport deliver labile PTEs to root-active zones. Dose-dependent and biphasic responses are also common, with low MP additions sometimes attenuating stress while higher doses intensify toxicity. Quantitatively, available crop studies show that intensified co-exposure can reduce plant biomass by approximately 10.2–29.3%, depending on crop species, plant organ, MP type, dose, and PTE identity, whereas antagonistic or neutral responses are also reported under other exposure conditions. The strongest evidence currently exists for Cd and As, but this review also considers Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, and Hg to represent chemically distinct cationic, metalloid, and redox-sensitive PTEs. Overall, MPs should not be treated only as passive contaminant carriers; they act as dynamic reactivity modifiers that can function as sinks, vectors, or indirect regulators of PTE bioavailability depending on soil and rhizosphere boundary conditions. Full article

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24 pages, 5006 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparing the Behavioral Impacts of Heavy Metals and Rare Earth Elements on Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae

by Muhammad Baqir Khan, Minh-Quan Tran, Petrus Siregar, Szu-Chieh Wang, Ming-Der Lin and Chung-Der Hsiao

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 729; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080729 - 17 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Heavy metals (HMs) and rare earth elements (REEs) increasingly co-occur in environmental waste streams and soils, yet their comparative neurotoxic mechanisms and sublethal effects on invertebrate decomposers remain poorly understood. This study used black soldier fly larvae (BSFL, Hermetia illucens) to perform [...] Read more.

Heavy metals (HMs) and rare earth elements (REEs) increasingly co-occur in environmental waste streams and soils, yet their comparative neurotoxic mechanisms and sublethal effects on invertebrate decomposers remain poorly understood. This study used black soldier fly larvae (BSFL, Hermetia illucens) to perform a comparative behavioral and transcriptomic assessment of 23 HMs and 16 REEs across two acute exposure concentrations. High-throughput video tracking and phenomic analysis showed HMs produced broader disruption than REEs, with low-concentration HMs inducing locomotor suppression, thigmotaxis, reduced fractal dimension and entropy, progressing to severe motor inhibition and rigid low-entropy states. In contrast, REEs showed a biphasic profile, shifting from selective locomotor suppression with preserved organization at low concentrations to hyperactive, fragmented, high-entropy movement with increased thigmotaxis at high concentrations. PCA and hierarchical clustering integrated endpoints into four neurobehavioral fingerprints segregating metal class and concentration, with partial overlap of high-concentration REEs with HMs along a shared high-toxicity axis. Transcriptomic profiling showed that cobalt as a representative HM activated DNA damage and cell-cycle pathways, perturbed energy signaling, and suppressed neuroactive ligand–receptor interaction, whereas samarium as a representative REE downregulated xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, glutathione metabolism, and synaptic vesicle cycling. These findings demonstrate distinct concentration-dependent neurotoxic modes of action for HMs and REEs and establish BSFL behavioral phenomics integrated with transcriptomics as a mechanistically informative platform for ecological risk assessment in contaminated waste systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging New Aquatic Models and AI Technology for Toxicity Studies)

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21 pages, 5561 KB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Ambient PM_2.5 Exposure and Premature Mortality Across of Türkiye

by Nebile Özmen, Volkan Duran, Fatma Şencan, Yasin Paşa and Mehmet Ali Çelik

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080728 - 17 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Long-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is the leading environmental risk factor for premature mortality worldwide, yet comprehensive province-level evidence quantifying its health burden across Türkiye remains limited. This study investigated the spatial relationship between long-term PM_2.5 exposure [...] Read more.

Long-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is the leading environmental risk factor for premature mortality worldwide, yet comprehensive province-level evidence quantifying its health burden across Türkiye remains limited. This study investigated the spatial relationship between long-term PM_2.5 exposure and all-cause attributable mortality across all 81 Turkish provinces in 2022 using province-level annual mean PM_2.5 concentrations and World Health Organisation (WHO) AirQ+ estimates of PM_2.5-attributable deaths among adults aged ≥30 years, assuming a counterfactual concentration of 5 µg/m³. The association between PM_2.5 exposure and mortality was evaluated using Pearson and Spearman correlation analyses, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression, a log–log elasticity model, and population-weighted regional and exposure-quartile comparisons, while national temporal indicators for 2010–2023 were reported solely as supplementary context for the primary single-year 2022 cross-sectional analysis. The population-weighted annual mean PM_2.5 concentration was 27.0 µg/m³, exceeding the WHO Air Quality Guideline by a factor of 5.4, and all 81 provinces exceeded the recommended threshold. The bivariate OLS model accounted for 41% of the between-province variation in attributable mortality rates (OLS slope = 3.23 additional deaths per 100,000 population for each 1 µg/m³ increase in PM_2.5; 95% CI: 2.37–4.10; R² = 0.41; p < 0.001), while the log–log elasticity model indicated that a 1% increase in PM_2.5 concentration was associated with a 0.80% increase in the attributable mortality rate (95% CI: 0.65–0.95). The attributable fraction of natural-cause mortality increased progressively from 8.8% in the lowest exposure quartile to 24.6% in the highest. Nationwide, an estimated 68,440 premature deaths, representing 14.2% of all natural-cause deaths among adults aged ≥30 years, were attributable to PM_2.5 exposure. These findings quantify a steep, spatially graded PM_2.5-attributable mortality burden across Türkiye. As the attributable estimates derive from the WHO AirQ+ concentration–response function, the gradient describes the magnitude and spatial distribution of the modelled burden rather than an independently estimated exposure–response relationship, and on that basis the results support the adoption of WHO-aligned air-quality standards and accelerated decarbonization strategies to reduce the national health burden attributable to ambient air pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Aerosols and Human Health)

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25 pages, 31723 KB

Open AccessArticle

Lactobacillus plantarum Attenuates Cadmium-Induced Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction and Systemic Toxicity in Broiler Chickens: Association with Calcium Homeostasis, PIEZO1 Expression, and Tight-Junction Integrity

by Farah Ijaz, Muhammad Farhan Rahim, Mohammed A. Bakr, Muhammad Ali Khan, Hafeez Ur Rehman Ali Khera, Yan Li, Chuxian Quan, Hang Su, Miao An, Shaokat Ali, El Fatihi Imad and Jiakui Li

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 727; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080727 - 16 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Heavy metal pollution is a serious environmental concern worldwide. Cadmium is one of the most common and hazardous heavy metals and is known to impair intestinal barrier integrity. Therefore, this study was designed to evaluate the protective effects of Lactobacillus plantarum against cadmium [...] Read more.

Heavy metal pollution is a serious environmental concern worldwide. Cadmium is one of the most common and hazardous heavy metals and is known to impair intestinal barrier integrity. Therefore, this study was designed to evaluate the protective effects of Lactobacillus plantarum against cadmium chloride (CdCl₂)-induced toxicity in chickens. A total of 120 one-day-old Arbor Acres broiler chickens were randomly divided into four equal groups (n = 30 birds/group). Following a 4-day acclimation period, the chickens were subjected to a 28-day feeding trial. The control group (CON) received a standard basal diet, the probiotic group (LB) received L. plantarum at 1 × 10⁸ CFU/mL via oral gavage, the co-treatment group (LC) received L. plantarum at 1 × 10⁸ CFU/mL together with CdCl₂ at 80 mg/kg, and the toxin group (CD) received CdCl₂ at 80 mg/kg. Cadmium exposure markedly increased mortality, reduced survival rates, elevated serum liver enzyme activities (p < 0.0001), increased cadmium accumulation in tissues (p < 0.05), and decreased body weight gain in chickens (p < 0.0001). Moreover, cadmium exposure was associated with altered tissue Ca²⁺ homeostasis, upregulation of PIEZO1 expression and impairment of the epithelial tight-junction proteins, including ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-1. In contrast, L. plantarum supplementation improved intestinal barrier integrity and restored intestinal morphology, including villus height and crypt depth, which were adversely affected by cadmium exposure. Collectively, L. plantarum supplementation attenuated cadmium-induced systemic and intestinal toxicity, as evidenced by multiple protective mechanisms, such as reduced mortality, decreased tissue cadmium accumulation (p < 0.05), improved biochemical parameters, and preservation of intestinal morphology and tight-junction integrity. These findings suggest that L. plantarum may provide a potential dietary strategy for mitigating cadmium toxicity in broiler chickens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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21 pages, 1827 KB

Open AccessArticle

Toward Animal-Free Phototoxicity Testing: A Keratinocyte-Based UVA Screening Assay to Distinguish Photoirritation from Photoallergy

by Adriana S. Maddaleno, Elisabet Teixidó, Laia Guardia-Escoté, Montserrat Mitjans and Maria Pilar Vinardell

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 726; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080726 - 16 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Phototoxicity represents an increasing concern due to the presence of photoreactive chemicals in consumer products, including household products, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic formulations. Upon exposure to solar radiation, these compounds may induce photoirritation, a non-immune-mediated inflammatory response, or photoallergy, an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. However, [...] Read more.

Phototoxicity represents an increasing concern due to the presence of photoreactive chemicals in consumer products, including household products, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic formulations. Upon exposure to solar radiation, these compounds may induce photoirritation, a non-immune-mediated inflammatory response, or photoallergy, an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. However, the ability to discriminate between photoirritant and photoallergic responses remains an unmet need, as no validated in vitro assay is currently available for this purpose. Therefore, the development of reliable non-animal approaches is essential to address ethical concerns and comply with current regulatory restrictions on animal testing. Interleukin-18 (IL-18) has been proposed as a potential biomarker of allergic and photoallergic responses. In this study, we developed an in vitro assay adapted from OECD Test Guideline 432 using reference phototoxic compounds and demonstrated that exposure to the photoallergenic compound benzophenone induced IL-18 production. Furthermore, multiplex cytokine profiling identified two additional preliminary candidate biomarkers for discriminating between photoallergic and photoirritant responses. Matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) was associated with photoallergic responses and was upregulated following exposure to chlorpromazine and benzophenone, whereas interleukin-6 (IL-6) was associated with photoirritant responses and was upregulated following exposure to 8-methoxypsoralen. Collectively, these findings provide proof-of-concept evidence supporting the future development of a novel non-animal strategy for predicting and discriminating between photoirritant and photoallergenic compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Cosmetic Safety Science: Approaches for Skin Compatibility and Risk Assessment)

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25 pages, 2308 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Investigation of Heavy Metal Accumulation in Liver and Kidney Tissues of the European Hare (Lepus europaeus P.) in Samples Originating from Intensive Agricultural Environments in Hungary

by Attila Bende, László Bánáti, László Könyves, Balázs Berlinger and István Fekete

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080725 - 16 Aug 2026

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of 17 heavy metals measured in the liver and kidney tissues of the European brown hare (Lepus europaeus) as a function of age, sex, organ type, and sampling area. In addition, [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of 17 heavy metals measured in the liver and kidney tissues of the European brown hare (Lepus europaeus) as a function of age, sex, organ type, and sampling area. In addition, we assessed the relationships between trace element profiles and reproductive parameters and highlighted their potential relevance from a food-safety perspective. Age-related comparisons revealed significantly higher concentrations of Ti, Fe, Cd, and Hg in adult individuals, whereas no statistically significant differences were detected for the remaining elements. No significant sex-related differences were found for any of the investigated elements. In contrast, the organ-based analysis revealed substantial differences. The concentrations of all elements differed significantly between the liver and the kidney. Correlation analyses identified positive associations between Mn and Zn concentrations, as well as between Mn and Cu concentrations, in both organs. The relationship between Zn and Cd was also positive and statistically significant. A comparison among sampling areas showed no significant spatial differences in the concentrations of Cr, Fe, Cu, and Mo. The greatest spatial heterogeneity was observed for Co, Hg, Pb, and Se, with Se concentrations differing significantly among nearly all sampling areas. Our results indicate strongly overlapping spatial heavy metal profiles, suggesting a gradual rather than sharply differentiated geographical pattern and similar emission characteristics. This interpretation is further supported by the clustering and principal component analysis (PCA) results. PERMANOVA analyses indicated that trace element profiles did not significantly influence the number of placental scars. Furthermore, neither age nor its interaction with trace element profiles exerted a detectable effect on variation in placental scar numbers. Full article

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17 pages, 5850 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Three-Dimensional Human Liver Model for Drug-Induced Liver and Bile Duct Injury Prediction

by Xiaonan Fu, Jiangping Hu, Xintong Jiang, Yedan Sun, Wanling Xiang, Rong Kuang, Hua Kang, Licheng He and Jing Sang

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 724; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080724 - 14 Aug 2026

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Abstract

In drug-induced liver injury (DILI) prediction field, animal models and in vitro cell models are most commonly used. However, animal models require long experimental timelines and may exhibit species-specific differences compared with humans, whereas conventional two-dimensional (2D) cell culture models lack cell-to-cell and [...] Read more.

In drug-induced liver injury (DILI) prediction field, animal models and in vitro cell models are most commonly used. However, animal models require long experimental timelines and may exhibit species-specific differences compared with humans, whereas conventional two-dimensional (2D) cell culture models lack cell-to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix (ECM) interaction. Liver organoid models and liver organ-on-a-chip can better simulate the human liver microenvironment; however, the construction of liver organoids requires a long cycle and high costs, while liver organ-on-a-chip systems demand specialized equipment and professional technicians. Herein, we selected the human C3A cell line, characterized by its low cost and facile culture conditions to establish an in vitro three-dimensional (3D) liver model. Briefly, C3A cells were embedded in Matrigel and cultured for 7 days to allow model maturation. Compared with their 2D-cultured cell model, the established 3D model exhibited elevated mRNA expression levels of drug-metabolizing cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs). Moreover, the model displayed robust expression of key hepatic biomarkers, as well as bile duct biomarkers. To evaluate the model’s applicability for DILI prediction, we performed toxicity assessments using a panel of six well-characterized hepatotoxicants and three non-hepatotoxic compounds. Notably, the 3D C3A model achieved a sensitivity of 83.3%, specificity of 100%, and overall accuracy of 88.9%. Furthermore, treatment of this model with chlorpromazine, a well-characterized cholangiotoxic agent, resulted in suppressed expression of the bile duct biomarker cytokeratin 19 (CK19) and bile salt export pump (BSEP), accompanied by impaired bile acid transport capacity. Taken together, this study provided a simple, low-cost, easy to culture, and more readily scalable 3D hepatic model in comparison with conventional 2D primary human hepatocyte (PHHs) models and other advanced 3D liver models. Notably, the model displayed dual hepatic and biliary characteristics, supporting predictions of both DILI and drug-induced bile duct injury. It provided a promising in vitro platform for assessing drug-induced hepatobiliary toxicity, with potential to reduce reliance on animal experiments and accelerate early-stage screening of novel pharmaceutical candidates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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31 pages, 1516 KB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence and Detection Profiles of Technology-Critical Elements (Ga, Ge, Nb, Ta and W) in Wild Mushrooms from Leicester and Leicestershire, UK

by Antonio Peña-Fernández, Tomás Cámara-Pastor, Guillermo Torrado Durán and M. Carmen Lobo-Bedmar

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 723; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080723 - 14 Aug 2026

Viewed by 467

Abstract

Technology-critical elements are increasingly used in electronics, renewable-energy systems, high-performance alloys and other strategic technologies, yet their occurrence in wild fungi remains poorly characterised. This study evaluated gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta) and tungsten (W) in wild mushrooms collected from [...] Read more.

Technology-critical elements are increasingly used in electronics, renewable-energy systems, high-performance alloys and other strategic technologies, yet their occurrence in wild fungi remains poorly characterised. This study evaluated gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta) and tungsten (W) in wild mushrooms collected from Leicester and Leicestershire, UK. The dataset was reconstructed at fruiting-body level to avoid pseudo-replication from paired cap and stem records, yielding 121 analytical units. Results were corrected using digestion-date acid blanks, interpreted against analytical-portion-specific working limits of detection and classified as fully quantified (FQ), partially censored (PC) or fully censored (FC). Ga was FQ in 106/121 units and was the only element with sufficient quantitative coverage for continuous distributional estimation; its regression-on-order-statistics median was 475.48 ng g⁻¹ dw (IQR: 278.70–941.63). The corresponding FQ counts were 16 for Ge, 33 for Nb, 10 for Ta and 24 for W, with 7, 4 and 4 additional PC observations for Nb, Ta and W, respectively. In 22 paired Agaricus bitorquis fruiting bodies, Ga concentrations were higher in stems than caps (Wilcoxon p = 5.25 × 10⁻⁵; BH-FDR = 1.05 × 10⁻⁴). Composite topsoils from 26 monitored sites provided park-scale geochemical context only and were not used to infer bioaccumulation or direct soil-to-fungus transfer. These findings establish a blank-corrected and censoring-aware occurrence baseline and suggest exploratory, site-specific potential for wild mushrooms as complementary biomonitoring matrices for selected technology-critical elements, while demonstrating that their usefulness is element-, taxon- and design-dependent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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15 pages, 2744 KB

Open AccessProtocol

Effects of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Exposure Reduction on Serum Lipids in the Copenhagen City Heart Study: A Protocol for an Observational Cohort Study Emulating a Target Trial

by Georges Khoury, Laura Deen, Lars Christian Lund, Erich Batzella, Michelle C. Turner, Gorm Boje Jensen, Tina Kold Jensen and Sandra Søgaard Tøttenborg

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 722; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080722 - 14 Aug 2026

Viewed by 546

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are environmental contaminants associated with higher serum lipids, although primarily in cross-sectional studies, limiting causal inference. We aim to determine whether there is a causal relationship between PFAS and serum lipid levels by emulating a target trial of [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are environmental contaminants associated with higher serum lipids, although primarily in cross-sectional studies, limiting causal inference. We aim to determine whether there is a causal relationship between PFAS and serum lipid levels by emulating a target trial of a hypothetical PFAS-reduction intervention using observational data. The target trial would enroll adults aged ≥20 years without prior cardiovascular, kidney, or liver disease, diabetes, or use of related medications. Participants would be randomly assigned to either PFAS-reduction counseling or no counseling, with adherence evaluated after 10 years, and then followed up after 10 years to assess effects on serum lipids. To emulate the target trial, we will use data from the Copenhagen City Heart Study on three successive clinical visits: baseline, follow-up, and outcome assessment visit, 10 years apart. Eligible participants meet the target trial criteria, have available blood samples for PFAS quantification at follow-up, and information on serum lipids at the outcome assessment. Intervention strategies will be evaluated based on observed reductions in PFAS concentrations between baseline and follow-up visit. Serum lipids are assessed at the outcome assessment visit. The emulation assumes exchangeability by adjusting for baseline and time-varying confounders using G-computation. This protocol explores applying the target trial emulation framework to improve causal inference in environmental epidemiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Association Between Environmental Pollutants Exposures and Chronic Disease)

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15 pages, 488 KB

Open AccessArticle

Discrepancies Between Predicted and Measured Microelements and Toxic Elements in Beetroot Supplemented Diets

by Michał S. Majewski, Łukasz Smyk, Anetta Hanć, Agnieszka Owczarczyk-Saczonek, Waldemar Jarosław Grzegorzewski, Joanna Majkowska-Gadomska and Anna Francke

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 721; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080721 - 14 Aug 2026

Viewed by 484

Abstract

Background: Accurate assessment of microelement and toxic element content in animal diets is essential for diet formulation, quality control, and exposure assessment; however, predictive additive models may not fully account for variability arising from raw materials and processing factors. Methods: This [...] Read more.

Background: Accurate assessment of microelement and toxic element content in animal diets is essential for diet formulation, quality control, and exposure assessment; however, predictive additive models may not fully account for variability arising from raw materials and processing factors. Methods: This study evaluated the composition of microelements and toxic elements in the four diets enriched with 4% beetroot cultivars Boldor and Wodan, either without (level 1) or with (level 3) foliar application of the selenium–based plant growth stimulator. Predicted values (calculated using an additive model P = 0.96 × C _{basal diet} + 0.04 × C _{beetroot component}) were compared with experimentally measured concentrations (M). Four dietary variants Boldor 1, Boldor 3, Wodan 1 and Wodan 3 were analyzed. Elemental concentrations of Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Se, Pb, As, Cd, and Sb were determined using ICP-MS. Results: Substantial discrepancies between predicted (P) and measured (M) values were observed. The largest deviations occurred for Cr, Fe, and Sb. Cr and Sb were generally underestimated by the model, whereas Fe was consistently overestimated. Selenium (Se) showed moderate variability, while Cu, Zn, and Ni exhibited close agreement between predicted and measured values. The largest measured cultivar-related differences were observed for As (2.87-fold), Cd (2.78-fold), Pb (2.47-fold), Cr (2.37-fold), Fe (1.73-fold), Sb (1.57-fold), Cu (1.13-fold), and Zn (1.05-fold), all of which occurred at higher concentrations in Wodan than in Boldor. No statistically significant effect of the selenium–based plant growth stimulator was observed. Conclusions: Overall, the results demonstrate that additive models have limited accuracy in predicting trace element composition in complex diets, particularly for elements potentially affected by raw-material variability, sampling heterogeneity, and analytical uncertainty. The contribution of the dietary 4% beetroot component played a key role in shaping element distribution, particularly for elements with high component-to-basal diet ratios. These findings highlight the importance of proper mixing, prevention of segregation in powdered diets, and strict control of raw material quality. Full article

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19 pages, 1141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Can Post-Mortem Cartilage Reliably Preserve Ethanol? A Time-Course Comparison with Blood and Urine

by Aleksandra Zorychta, Małgorzata Głaz, Rafał Skowronek, Joanna Nowicka, Marcin Tomsia and Elżbieta Chełmecka

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 720; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080720 - 14 Aug 2026

Viewed by 1049

Abstract

The time interval between the collection of biological material and the performance of toxicological analyses is particularly important when the appropriate storage temperature cannot be maintained. This issue is especially relevant in the determination of ethanol concentration in specimens obtained from drivers suspected [...] Read more.

The time interval between the collection of biological material and the performance of toxicological analyses is particularly important when the appropriate storage temperature cannot be maintained. This issue is especially relevant in the determination of ethanol concentration in specimens obtained from drivers suspected of intoxication or being under the influence of ethanol, as well as in samples collected during post-mortem examinations. The present study evaluated the effect of room-temperature storage on ethanol concentrations in post-mortem blood, urine, costal cartilage, and intervertebral disc cartilage collected from 57 cadavers. According to Polish law, blood ethanol concentrations > 0.2 mg/mL and >0.5 mg/mL were classified as “after alcohol use” and “intoxication”, respectively. Two subgroups were therefore distinguished from the study group: 27 ethanol-positive > 0.5 mg/mL (intoxicated) and 30 ethanol-negative cases—less than or equal to 0.5 mg/mL (sober). Ethanol concentrations were determined using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID). Statistically significant differences in blood ethanol concentration were observed in ethanol-positive individuals depending on storage time after sample collection (p < 0.001). Under the storage conditions used in this study, no increase in ethanol concentration was observed in samples collected from ethanol-negative individuals. In ethanol-positive individuals, ethanol concentrations decreased progressively in all analyzed matrices during room-temperature storage. Urine showed the greatest stability throughout the observation period. In both cartilage matrices, ethanol was detectable up to day 3, whereas all measurements were negative from day 4 onward. Blood ethanol concentrations also decreased during storage. By day 4, the mean concentration was below the legal intoxication threshold. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues and Research Perspectives in Forensic Toxicology)

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18 pages, 4121 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of the Application of Four MEA-Based Neurotoxicity Screening Methods in Ni²⁺ Neurotoxicity Assessment

by Chen Meng, Yang Lu, Yan Huang, Zhi-Gong Wang and Xiao-Ying Lü

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 719; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080719 - 14 Aug 2026

Viewed by 488

Abstract

Microelectrode array (MEA) technology is widely employed in electrophysiological research and, in recent years, has increasingly been applied in the screening of neurotoxicity. In this study, we investigated the neurotoxic effects of different concentrations of Ni²⁺ by analyzing its influence on the [...] Read more.

Microelectrode array (MEA) technology is widely employed in electrophysiological research and, in recent years, has increasingly been applied in the screening of neurotoxicity. In this study, we investigated the neurotoxic effects of different concentrations of Ni²⁺ by analyzing its influence on the mean firing and bursting rates of spontaneous activity, as well as the frequency of electrical-stimulation-evoked activity in the neocortical region in rat brain slices through MEA. Integrating our team’s prior findings on Ni²⁺’s influence on the electrical stimulation threshold of evoked activity, we compared the application effectiveness of the four MEA-based neurotoxicity screening methods in Ni²⁺ neurotoxicity research. Our results demonstrate that all of these methods can effectively assess the neurotoxic effects of Ni²⁺; however, they differ in certain aspects, such as the applicable neuronal networks and data-processing approaches. We also found that Ni²⁺ influences spontaneous and electrical-stimulation-evoked activity in the neocortical region in rat brain slices via distinct mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Neurotoxicity)

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20 pages, 1685 KB

Open AccessArticle

Probabilistic Ecological Risk Assessment of Synthetic Musk Compounds in the Han River Estuary: Integrating Multi-Year Monitoring and Explainable Machine Learning

by Jungmin Jo, Na Rae Choi, Eunjin Lee, Jae Won Yoo, Dong Sik Ahn, Ji Yi Lee and Yun Gyong Ahn

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 718; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080718 - 13 Aug 2026

Viewed by 509

Abstract

Synthetic musk compounds (SMCs) are emerging contaminants frequently detected in aquatic environments due to their widespread use in personal care and household products. This study investigated the occurrence, environmental drivers, and ecological risks of twelve SMCs in the Han River estuary and adjacent [...] Read more.

Synthetic musk compounds (SMCs) are emerging contaminants frequently detected in aquatic environments due to their widespread use in personal care and household products. This study investigated the occurrence, environmental drivers, and ecological risks of twelve SMCs in the Han River estuary and adjacent coastal waters, Korea, using three years of monitoring data (2020–2022). A total of 222 water samples from 13 monitoring stations were analyzed by GC–MS. 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-(g)-2-benzopyran (HHCB) was the dominant compound, followed by musk ketone (MK). Total SMC concentrations ranged from non-detectable levels to 157.6 μg/L, with the highest concentrations consistently observed at wastewater treatment facilities. XGBoost-SHAP analysis identified total nitrogen (TN) as the most influential predictor of SMC occurrence. This association reflects the shared wastewater origin of the two rather than any causal link, so that TN serves as an indicator of wastewater influence rather than of SMC concentration itself. Ecological risks were evaluated using Monte Carlo-based probabilistic hazard quotient (HQ) analysis. HHCB and MK exhibited the highest risks, with mean HQ values exceeding 1.0 at wastewater treatment facilities, indicating potential ecological concern. In contrast, most coastal sites showed low risk levels. The observed spatial patterns identified wastewater discharge zones as major hotspots of SMC exposure and ecological risk. These findings highlight the importance of wastewater-derived SMCs as emerging contaminants in estuarine environments and demonstrate the utility of integrating long-term monitoring, explainable machine learning, and probabilistic risk assessment for ecological risk characterization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Contaminants in a Changing World: Implications for Human Health)

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22 pages, 1589 KB

Open AccessArticle

Basic Study on Mercury Methylation Under Oxic Conditions: Incubation Experiments Using Seawater from Minamata Bay, Japan

by Akito Matsuyama, Michiaki Kindaichi and Yoko Taniguchi

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 717; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080717 - 13 Aug 2026

Viewed by 513

Abstract

Background: This study investigated the generation of dissolved methylmercury (diss-MeHg) under oxic conditions in the surface waters of Minamata Bay. Although mercury methylation has been extensively investigated under reducing conditions, its occurrence under oxic conditions remains poorly understood. Methods: Incubation conditions capable of [...] Read more.

Background: This study investigated the generation of dissolved methylmercury (diss-MeHg) under oxic conditions in the surface waters of Minamata Bay. Although mercury methylation has been extensively investigated under reducing conditions, its occurrence under oxic conditions remains poorly understood. Methods: Incubation conditions capable of artificially inducing mercury methylation were established for the first time. Incubation parameters were optimized using surface seawater samples. Results: Diss-MeHg production was positively correlated with dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations (1–5 mg/L). The highest methylation was observed at 22 °C and 32.5‰ salinity, though no statistically significant differences were observed within the ranges of 18–22 °C and 31.5–34.5‰. Under the optimized conditions (22 °C, 32.5‰, 5 mg/L DOC), seawater samples were sequentially filtered through membranes of various pore sizes. Diss-MeHg was detected in fractions filtered through 0.8- and 3-µm membrane filters but was absent from the 0.45- and 0.2-µm fractions. Additionally, autoclaving the 0.8 µm filtrate prevented diss-MeHg production. Conclusions: These findings suggest the presence of a distinct biological mercury methylation process operating under oxic conditions in surface seawater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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15 pages, 1744 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Pisolithus arhizus Inoculation Enhances Mercury Tolerance and Growth of Trifolium repens in Mining Soils

by Mónica López Velarde Santos, Adrian Ferrucio García-Morales, José Alberto Rodríguez Morales, Felix Leao Rodríguez Fierros, Yesenia Mendoza-Burguete, Juan Campos-Guillén, Miguel Angel Ramos-López, María del Carmen González-López, María Carolina Espinosa Arzate, Luisa Ramírez Granados and Ricardo Chaparro Sanchez

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 716; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080716 - 13 Aug 2026

Viewed by 447

Abstract

While mining provides critical raw materials for modern infrastructure and the energy transition, it leaves behind severe environmental damages, such as soil mercury (Hg) contamination. In the present study, we present the first study evaluating the relationship of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus arhizus [...] Read more.

While mining provides critical raw materials for modern infrastructure and the energy transition, it leaves behind severe environmental damages, such as soil mercury (Hg) contamination. In the present study, we present the first study evaluating the relationship of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus arhizus with Trifolium repens (white clover) as a novel nature-based mycoremediation strategy for mercury-stressed soils. Through a controlled 2 × 2 factorial experiment over six months, we demonstrate that P. arhizus significantly enhances both plant biomass and heavy-metal tolerance. Inoculation achieved a 9.53% reduction in soil Hg and drove a dramatic 53% increase in stem growth under Hg stress (compared to 36% in non-contaminated conditions) once the extraradicular mycelial network was established. Furthermore, we report novel soil-chemistry dynamics under Hg stress, including a 16% shift in electrical conductivity alongside unexpected increases in the available potassium (+9%) and phosphorus (+3%). These findings present first results for a novel approach of mycoremediation by incorporating P. arhizus into T. repens co-cultivation as a viable remediation strategy, prior to field-scale remediation. Full article

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14 pages, 841 KB

Open AccessArticle

Advancing Lead Exposure Studies in Remote Settings: Method Development and Application of Lead Stable Isotope Analysis in Dried Blood Spots from Suriname, South America

by Manasi Simhan, Sean R. Scott, Martin M. Shafer, Jenny N. Poynter, Gaitree K. Baldewsingh, Wilco C. W. R. Zijlmans, Anisma R. Gokoel, Maureen Y. Lichtveld, Jeffrey K. Wickliffe and Shannon M. Sullivan

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 715; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080715 - 13 Aug 2026

Viewed by 441

Abstract

Background: Lead (Pb) exposure remains a major global health issue, and Pb stable isotope ratio analysis is a powerful tool for identifying potential exposure sources. However, traditional whole blood collection is difficult to implement in remote or resource-limited settings. We developed and [...] Read more.

Background: Lead (Pb) exposure remains a major global health issue, and Pb stable isotope ratio analysis is a powerful tool for identifying potential exposure sources. However, traditional whole blood collection is difficult to implement in remote or resource-limited settings. We developed and validated a novel method for measuring Pb isotopic composition in dried blood spots (DBS) using a multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) and applied it in a pilot study of DBS collected from children in Suriname, South America. Methods: Method accuracy was evaluated by comparing isotopic ratios (²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb and ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb) measured in laboratory-spiked DBS (15 µL of blood per DBS) with those from matched whole blood samples (1 mL) across a range of Pb concentrations (2.1–28.9 µg/dL). The method was then applied to DBS collected from 18 children, ages 6 months to 5 years, in Suriname. Potential local exposure sources, including soil, shotgun pellets, and cooking utensils, were also analyzed for lead isotopic composition and compared with DBS isotope ratios to assess source concordance. Results: DBS isotopic ratios accurately reflected whole blood values when Pb concentrations exceeded ~315 pg/punch (~2.1 µg/dL), with greater accuracy observed above 5 µg/dL. In the Suriname DBSs, blank-corrected ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb ratios were consistent across regions (mean 2.12 ± 0.018; n = 15) and showed no significant geographic stratification (p = 0.11). DBS signatures (isotope ratios) most closely aligned with shotgun pellets and soil samples, whereas those from cooking utensils did not match DBS signatures. A positive correlation was observed between estimated blood total Pb and soil Pb concentrations (ρ = 0.60, p = 0.20). Conclusions: Overall, DBS provided reliable Pb isotopic ratio measurements above ~2–5 µg/dL, spanning the current CDC reference value of 3.5 µg/dL at which children’s exposures warrant investigation. These findings support DBS as a minimally invasive, scalable tool for exposure source identification in environmental epidemiology, particularly in remote settings where traditional venipuncture is impractical. What this study adds: This study establishes the first validated method for high-precision lead (Pb) stable isotopic ratio analysis using dried blood spots (DBS). By implementing a sample blank correction, we demonstrate that DBS can accurately resolve isotopic signatures even at low blood lead concentrations. Applied in DBS collected in Suriname, the method successfully linked DBS signatures to local shotgun pellets and soils, illustrating a common exposure profile across diverse regions. This work expands the utility of DBS beyond simple screening, offering a minimally invasive, scalable tool for source attribution in global health research and environmental epidemiology in remote regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analytical Methods for Trace Elements in Human Biofluids)

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23 pages, 6454 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transfer of ¹³⁷Cs into Maize (Zea mays L.) at Different Growth Stages in the Area Contaminated by the Chernobyl Fallout

by Tatiana Paramonova, Olga Denisova, Natalia Kuzmenkova, Leonid Turykhin, Maria Godyaeva and Alexei Konoplev

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 714; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080714 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 498

Abstract

Accumulation of radionuclides in crop products can pose public health risks. Parameters of ¹³⁷Cs root uptake by maize were investigated at four growth stages, from leaf development to ripening (June–September), in the post-Chernobyl area of the Plavsk radioactive hotspot (the Tula region [...] Read more.

Accumulation of radionuclides in crop products can pose public health risks. Parameters of ¹³⁷Cs root uptake by maize were investigated at four growth stages, from leaf development to ripening (June–September), in the post-Chernobyl area of the Plavsk radioactive hotspot (the Tula region of Russia). It was established that the chernozem of the agrosystem still contains about 180 kBq ¹³⁷Cs m⁻². Seasonal trends of ¹³⁷Cs activity concentrations in above- and belowground parts of maize differ appreciably. In aerial parts, the ¹³⁷Cs accumulation rate increases as vegetative organs develop from June to July, then drops when generative organs appear in August. In the belowground biomass, the ¹³⁷Cs content increases with the growth of fine roots, which serve as relative concentrators of the radionuclide. However, at all stages of growth, radionuclide transfer to maize occurs with low intensity. It does not directly depend on changes in biomass, dry matter content, or ⁴⁰K content, and only slightly relates to the ash content. The transfer factor is estimated to be 6.2 × 10⁻³ for cob kernels (grain) and 3.8 × 10⁻² for stems and leaves, which corresponds to the IAEA-recommended values and ensures acceptable levels of ¹³⁷Cs accumulation in crop products produced in the territory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radioactive Contamination and Its Impact on the Environment)

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26 pages, 25848 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rutin-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Attenuate Doxorubicin-Induced Nephrotoxicity and Modulate Epigenetic Regulation and MyD88/STAT3 Signaling

by Amina A. Farag, Walaa Bayoumie El Gazzar, Mahmoud Mostafa, Lina A. Mohammed, Azza S. El-Demerdash, Nagah E. M. Ali, Ranih Z. Amer, Heba S. Youssef, Noha Osama El-Shaer, Ibrahim A. Mostafa, Haidy M. Fakher and Sahar Soliman

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 713; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080713 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 598

Abstract

Doxorubicin (DOX)-induced nephrotoxicity remains a major limitation to its clinical use, yet the underlying epigenetic mechanisms are incompletely understood. This study investigated the role of epigenetic dysregulation and MyD88/STAT3 signaling in DOX-induced renal injury and evaluated the renoprotective efficacy of rutin-loaded nanostructured lipid [...] Read more.

Doxorubicin (DOX)-induced nephrotoxicity remains a major limitation to its clinical use, yet the underlying epigenetic mechanisms are incompletely understood. This study investigated the role of epigenetic dysregulation and MyD88/STAT3 signaling in DOX-induced renal injury and evaluated the renoprotective efficacy of rutin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (RUT-NLCs) compared with free rutin (RUT). Thirty-six rats were allocated to six experimental groups, and renal function, oxidative stress, inflammation, DNA damage, epigenetic modifications, MyD88/STAT3 signaling, histopathology, and ultrastructural changes were assessed. DOX administration induced severe renal dysfunction, oxidative stress, DNA damage, tubular injury, global DNA hypermethylation, aberrant histone methylation, Klotho promoter hypermethylation, and activation of the MyD88/STAT3 inflammatory pathway. Treatment with RUT-NLCs significantly attenuated these alterations by restoring antioxidant defenses, normalizing epigenetic markers, reducing DNA damage, suppressing MyD88/STAT3 signaling, and improving renal histopathological and ultrastructural architecture. Overall, RUT-NLCs provided greater nephroprotection than free rutin, suggesting that modulation of epigenetic alterations and MyD88/STAT3 signaling represents a key mechanism underlying their therapeutic efficacy against DOX-induced nephrotoxicity. Full article

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20 pages, 2008 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to the Environmental Toxins Microcystin-LR and Roundup^® Causes Cellular Damage in the Hepatopancreas of the White River Crayfish (Procambarus acutus)

by Mona Khalil, Antonillamarein E. Hanna, Brandon T. Kenaya, Amira S. Abuhmoud, Sarah A. Magid, Miranda J. Jasinski, Shaza Ahmed, Andrew A. Bosah, Sabrina A. Cacanindin, Oswaldo Celestino Escobar, Yara A. El-Sheikh, Evelyn M. Rihacek, Kendra R. Evans, Gregory M. Grabowski, Levi Storks and Rachelle M. Belanger

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 712; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080712 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 1105

Abstract

Aquatic ecosystems are routinely exposed to natural and anthropogenic stressors, and when multiple pollutants co-occur, their synergistic effects may exceed those of individual contaminants. This study evaluated the individual and combined effects of the widely used agrochemical Roundup^®, whose active ingredient [...] Read more.

Aquatic ecosystems are routinely exposed to natural and anthropogenic stressors, and when multiple pollutants co-occur, their synergistic effects may exceed those of individual contaminants. This study evaluated the individual and combined effects of the widely used agrochemical Roundup^®, whose active ingredient is glyphosate (GLY) and the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin-LR (MC-LR) on the hepatopancreas of crayfish. Following a seven-day exposure to MC-LR (15 ppb), GLY (75 ppb), or their combination (MC-LR + GLY), cellular and morphological alterations were assessed using flow cytometry and histological analyses. MC-LR exposure increased hepatopancreatic vacuole number 3.7-fold and vacuole proportion 6.8-fold relative to controls, whereas GLY increased vacuole proportion 5.2-fold. Combined exposure increased tubule lumen proportion by approximately 65%, while epithelial height remained unchanged. GLY reduced viable (fluorescein diacetate-positive) hepatopancreatic cells by approximately 86%, and both GLY and MC-LR + GLY increased non-viable (propidium iodide-positive) cells by 4.8-fold and 4.3-fold, respectively. MC-LR alone did not significantly affect cell viability. These findings indicate that MC-LR primarily induces structural alterations, whereas GLY causes pronounced cellular cytotoxicity. Although co-exposure did not consistently produce synergistic toxicity, it enhanced tissue remodeling, emphasizing the importance of evaluating environmentally relevant contaminant mixtures and their implications for freshwater ecosystem health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecotoxicological Effects of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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18 pages, 1645 KB

Open AccessReview

Indoor Environmental Exposures and Dry Eye Disease: Mechanisms, Clinical Impact, and Prevention Strategies

by Yumeng Li, Ji Yang, Tao Xie, Ping Xiang, Lei Kong and Hai Liu

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 711; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080711 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 647

Abstract

Dry eye disease (DED) is a complex ocular surface disorder characterized by tear film instability, discomfort, hyperosmolarity, inflammation, and neurosensory dysfunction. Since individuals spend a significant amount of time inside buildings, exposure to indoor environments has emerged as a noteworthy and adjustable factor [...] Read more.

Dry eye disease (DED) is a complex ocular surface disorder characterized by tear film instability, discomfort, hyperosmolarity, inflammation, and neurosensory dysfunction. Since individuals spend a significant amount of time inside buildings, exposure to indoor environments has emerged as a noteworthy and adjustable factor influencing ocular surface disorders. This analysis consolidates recent findings connecting indoor air contaminants, such as particulate pollutants, volatile organic substances, formaldehyde, and other gaseous irritants, as well as tobacco and cooking fumes, heavy metals, organophosphate flame retardants, and liquid crystal compounds, with the mechanisms and symptoms associated with DED. Research suggests that indoor environmental factors can exacerbate DED by triggering interconnected mechanisms such as oxidative damage, inflammation, lipid degradation, meibomian gland issues, decreased tear production, impairment of goblet cells and the mucin layer, disruption of tight junctions, and damage to the corneal or conjunctival epithelium. The most robust clinical evidence currently pertains to tobacco smoke, particulate matter, indoor air pollution, low humidity, and poor ventilation. In contrast, although biological plausibility exists for heavy metals, flame retardants, and liquid crystal monomers, the supporting data remain relatively sparse, indirect, and less comprehensive. Harmonized exposure assessments, prospective cohort studies, analyses of pollutant mixtures, and experimental intervention trials are needed to better characterize dose–response relationships and to establish effective preventive measures. Assessment of environmental history and improvement of indoor air quality should be regarded as integral and interrelated components in the prevention and management of DED. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollutants: Sources, Characteristics, Environmental Impacts and Human Health Risks)

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20 pages, 4032 KB

Open AccessArticle

Health Status Assessment of Panamanian Pacific Coastal Areas Using Multi-Level Biomarkers in the Mangrove Cockle Anadara tuberculosa

by Nelva Elena Alvarado-González, Jenifer Ortega, Yulissa De Gracia, Maricselis Díaz, Enrique Medianero, Tifanie Briaudeau, Tamer Hafez, Maren Ortiz-Zarragoitia, Xabier Lekube and Beñat Zaldibar

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080710 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 536

Abstract

Tropical coastal ecosystems are highly productive but increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pressures, making environmental monitoring tools essential to determine the health status of the environment. In this study, the health status of three sites along the Pacific coast of Panama (Río Santa María, [...] Read more.

Tropical coastal ecosystems are highly productive but increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pressures, making environmental monitoring tools essential to determine the health status of the environment. In this study, the health status of three sites along the Pacific coast of Panama (Río Santa María, Cuchilluyo, and Montijo) was assessed using the bivalve mollusc Anadara tuberculosa as a sentinel species. A multilevel biomarker approach was employed, combining chemical analyses with biochemical and histological biomarkers. Metal concentrations in whole soft tissues were generally low-to-moderate, except for arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations were low in all sites, being dominated by low-molecular-weight compounds. Biomarker responses were consistent with the chemical data, with cockles from Montijo exhibiting lower glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity and reduced oxidative DNA damage. Histological analyses revealed only mild alterations, including hemocytic infiltration in the connective tissue of digestive glands and atrophy, with no major reproductive impairments. Overall, results indicate low to moderate pollution levels in the studied areas, with Montijo representing the least impacted site. The study supports the suitability of A. tuberculosa as a sentinel species and the relevance of a multilevel biomarker approach for assessing environmental health in tropical coastal ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecotoxicological Effects of Anthropogenic Contaminants in Aquatic Organisms)

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18 pages, 1957 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prenatal Exposure to Size-Fractionated Particulate Matter and Fetal Growth Trajectories: Mediation by Maternal Glucose Metabolism in a Birth Cohort

by Qian Chen, Bijun Shi, Yu Liu, Xin Wang, Li Cai, Qiliang Cui, Xiaohua Tan and Yujing Chen

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 709; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080709 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 400

Abstract

The metabolic mechanisms linking prenatal particulate matter (PM) to fetal growth remain unclear. A prospective cohort of 616 mother–fetus pairs in Guangzhou had ultrasound-based fetal growth parameters repeatedly measured from mid to late pregnancy. Fetal head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC), femur length [...] Read more.

The metabolic mechanisms linking prenatal particulate matter (PM) to fetal growth remain unclear. A prospective cohort of 616 mother–fetus pairs in Guangzhou had ultrasound-based fetal growth parameters repeatedly measured from mid to late pregnancy. Fetal head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC), femur length (FL), and biparietal diameter (BPD) were standardized as z-scores. Estimated fetal weight (EFW) trajectories were classified as average, slow, and rapid growth. Residential PM₁, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀ were assessed with 1 km spatiotemporal models. Multinomial logistic regression analyzed PM-EFW trajectory associations. Generalized estimating equations evaluated PM–fetal growth z-score relationships. Maternal plasma glucose and insulin levels at mid-pregnancy were examined as intermediate factors. Each 5 μg/m³ increase in PM was associated with higher odds of rapid EFW growth versus average growth (OR _PM1 = 1.56, 95% CI: 1.03, 2.37; OR _PM2.5 = 1.44, 95% CI: 1.10, 1.88; OR _PM10 = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.05, 1.56). Positive associations were also observed for BPD, HC, and AC z-scores, with PM₁ showing the numerically larger effect estimates. Maternal fasting plasma glucose and insulin resistance may partly explain the observed associations of PM exposure with rapid EFW growth and fetal growth parameters, with estimated proportions of 5.0–29.4%. This study highlights the potential risk of accelerated fetal growth associated with maternal PM exposures, and maternal glucose metabolism may represent a plausible pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Media Exposure to Emerging Contaminants and Health Effects Across Physiological Systems: Exposure Pathways, Risk Assessment and Public Health Implications)

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33 pages, 2522 KB

Open AccessReview

Mechanism and Application of Biochar as an Electron Shuttle in the Remediation of Soil Pollutants

by Lingling Feng, Ke Tan, Can Tang, Huan Zhao, Jiawen Zhu, Qingman Zhang, Jiayu Yan and Mengdi Xie

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080708 - 11 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Biochar has attracted increasing attention in soil remediation due to its porous structure, abundant surface functional groups, and environmental compatibility. Beyond its conventional roles as an adsorbent and soil amendment, biochar has increasingly been recognized as an electron shuttle that mediates electron transfer [...] Read more.

Biochar has attracted increasing attention in soil remediation due to its porous structure, abundant surface functional groups, and environmental compatibility. Beyond its conventional roles as an adsorbent and soil amendment, biochar has increasingly been recognized as an electron shuttle that mediates electron transfer between electron donors and acceptors, thereby promoting redox reactions involved in pollutant transformation, immobilization, and toxicity mitigation. However, the structural basis, influencing factors, and underlying electron-transfer mechanisms of biochar-mediated processes remain insufficiently integrated. This review summarizes biochar-mediated electron transfer in soil remediation. Three pathways are discussed: direct electron transfer through conductive carbon matrices, indirect electron transfer mediated by redox-active surface functional groups, and composite interfacial electron transfer involving microorganisms, metal oxides, and nanomaterials. By introducing the synergistic effects between biochar and microorganisms, metal oxides, and nanomaterials, the functions of biochar in immobilizing heavy metals and degrading organic pollutants are emphasized. Biochar’s electron-shuttling ability is closely related to aromatic carbon structures, redox-active functional groups, and persistent free radicals, while key factors affecting electron-shuttling performance, including feedstock properties, pyrolysis temperature, pH, coexisting ions, pollutant concentration, and modification strategies, are also discussed. This review offers guidance for the design of biochar-based soil remediation strategies. Full article

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28 pages, 2864 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Environmental Cadmium Exposure, Plaque Calcium Content, and Lifestyle Factors Improve Prediction of Carotid Plaque Echogenicity: An Exposome-Oriented Approach

by Adam Płoński, Aleksandra Jurczuk, Adam Filip Płoński, Małgorzata Gałażyn-Sidorczuk, Aleksandra Konopka, Karol Struniawski, Marcin Gabriel, Adam Siebieszuk and Maria Jurczuk

Toxics 2026, 14(8), 707; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14080707 - 11 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Cadmium exposure has been implicated in the development of atherosclerosis, yet its relationship with carotid plaque composition and echogenicity remains poorly understood. A better understanding of the environmental and biological factors influencing plaque characteristics may facilitate more accurate stratification of patients at high [...] Read more.

Cadmium exposure has been implicated in the development of atherosclerosis, yet its relationship with carotid plaque composition and echogenicity remains poorly understood. A better understanding of the environmental and biological factors influencing plaque characteristics may facilitate more accurate stratification of patients at high risk of ischemic stroke. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationships between environmental cadmium exposure, plaque calcium content, lifestyle-related factors, and carotid plaque echogenicity, and to assess their combined value for predicting a highly echogenic carotid plaque phenotype. This cross-sectional study included 80 patients with advanced carotid atherosclerosis undergoing carotid endarterectomy. Cadmium concentrations were simultaneously determined in blood, urine, and surgically excised carotid plaques, whereas calcium concentrations were measured in plaque tissue, serum, and urine using atomic absorption spectrometry. Carotid plaque echogenicity was assessed preoperatively using ultrasound-derived Gray-Scale Median (GSM), and multivariable logistic regression models were developed to predict a highly echogenic, stable plaque phenotype. Current smokers exhibited significantly higher blood and urinary cadmium concentrations than never smokers, while urinary cadmium remained elevated after smoking cessation, reflecting cumulative exposure. Plaque calcium content showed the strongest positive association with GSM, whereas cadmium concentrations in blood, urine, and plaque tissue were not independently associated with continuous GSM. Higher fruit and vegetable intake was also positively associated with plaque echogenicity. Integrating cadmium biomarkers, plaque calcium content, smoking-related variables, and dietary factors substantially improved prediction of GSM ≥ 75, achieving excellent discrimination (AUC = 0.870) with 85.0% classification accuracy. These findings suggest that carotid plaque echogenicity reflects the combined influence of local tissue mineralization, environmental exposures, and lifestyle-related factors. This integrative approach may improve our understanding of carotid plaque biology and support future strategies for risk assessment and clinical stratification of patients with carotid atherosclerosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cadmium Exposure and Health Impact)

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Toxics, Volume 14, Issue 8 (August 2026) – 92 articles

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