Toxics

20 pages, 2699 KB

Open AccessReview

Environmental DNA in the Ecological Risk Assessment of Water Pollution: Methods, Applications, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

by Xiaotian Zhang, Xiaoran Gong, Shanshan Di and Miaomiao Teng

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070644 - 22 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Water pollution and its ecological consequences have become central concerns in watershed governance and aquatic ecosystem conservation. Conventional ecotoxicological research on water pollution has long relied on physicochemical monitoring, laboratory-based single-species exposure tests, and morphology-based biological surveys. Although these approaches have provided essential [...] Read more.

Water pollution and its ecological consequences have become central concerns in watershed governance and aquatic ecosystem conservation. Conventional ecotoxicological research on water pollution has long relied on physicochemical monitoring, laboratory-based single-species exposure tests, and morphology-based biological surveys. Although these approaches have provided essential support for pollutant identification, toxicity characterization, and environmental standard setting, they remain insufficient for resolving community-level responses, food-web perturbations, and ecosystem degradation under multiple-stressor conditions. Environmental DNA (eDNA) has emerged as a promising molecular tool because it is non-invasive, highly sensitive, high-throughput, and capable of detecting multiple taxa simultaneously. In aquatic systems, eDNA applications have expanded from biodiversity detection to pollution diagnosis, ecological health assessment, restoration monitoring, and early warning of ecological risk, while increasingly being integrated with eRNA, multi-omics approaches, machine learning, hydrological modeling, and ecological network analysis. However, several challenges still constrain its broader application, including incomplete methodological standardization, false-positive and false-negative detections, insufficient reference databases, limited quantitative capacity, scale mismatches caused by transport and mixing, and difficulties in causal attribution. This review synthesizes recent progress in the use of eDNA for water-pollution research, with emphasis on its technical workflow, major application domains, integrative analytical frameworks, and methodological boundaries. More specifically, three main points are highlighted: (1) eDNA is shifting water-pollution research from single-species toxicity characterization toward community- and ecosystem-level ecological interpretation; (2) its greatest value lies in its integrative role at the interface of biodiversity monitoring, ecological risk assessment, and management-oriented decision support; and (3) future progress will depend on improvements in standardization, quantitative inference, regional reference databases, and multi-source data integration. Overall, this review clarifies how eDNA can contribute to more robust, ecologically meaningful, and management-relevant assessment of water pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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20 pages, 880 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Carcinogenic Risk of PM_2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Charcoal Barbecue (Moo Kratha) Restaurants in Chiang Mai, Thailand

by Thanawat Komonnithiphong, Kotchakorn Khammoon, Sakaewan Ounjaijean, Kongsak Boonyapranai, Hataichanok Chuljerm, Kanokwan Kulprachakarn, Wiritphon Khiaolaongam, Anurak Wongta, Surat Hongsibsong and Sawaeng Kawichai

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070643 - 22 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Barbecue (Moo Kratha) restaurants are prevalent in Chiang Mai City, Thailand. However, their PM_2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions, compounded by the region’s severe seasonal smoke haze, remain poorly characterized. This study investigated the chemical composition and carcinogenic risk of PM [...] Read more.

Barbecue (Moo Kratha) restaurants are prevalent in Chiang Mai City, Thailand. However, their PM_2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions, compounded by the region’s severe seasonal smoke haze, remain poorly characterized. This study investigated the chemical composition and carcinogenic risk of PM_2.5-bound PAHs in this present environment. Ten PM_2.5 samples were collected from ten charcoal Moo Kratha restaurants during peak evening hours in February 2026 (early dry season) using a portable air sampler operated as a fixed-location (area) sampler positioned at the customer dining table (2 L min⁻¹, 180 min) on quartz fiber filters, and the 16 US EPA priority PAHs were analyzed by GC-MS. Carcinogenic risk was assessed using benzo[a]pyrene toxicity equivalent (TEQ_BaP) concentrations and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for adult and child customers (diners) via the inhalation pathway. The mean concentrations of PM_2.5 and total PAHs were 87.64 µg m⁻³ and 132.74 ng m⁻³, respectively, with carcinogenic PAHs contributing 52.3%; the mean TEQBaP of 15.34 ng m⁻³ provides an internal index of the carcinogenic potency of the PAH mixture. The mean inhalation ILCR for a frequent diner was 2.82 × 10⁻⁵ for adults and 2.12 × 10⁻⁵ for children, rising to 6.16 × 10⁻⁵ and 4.62 × 10⁻⁵, respectively, at the most contaminated site; even an occasional (monthly) diner exceeded the 10⁻⁶ negligible threshold. These findings indicate that charcoal Moo Kratha restaurants are distinct, persistent sources of carcinogenic PAHs that place diners within the upper part of the tolerable cancer-risk range; worker exposure is expected to be higher but was not quantified here, underlining the need for ventilation and occupational-health strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollutants: Sources, Characteristics, Environmental Impacts and Human Health Risks)

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21 pages, 3695 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diesel Exhaust Particles Remodel Lipid Raft-Associated Molecular Features Potentially Relevant to SARS-CoV-2 Susceptibility in A549 Cells

by Laura Botto, Mario Mauri, Simone Serrao, Alessandra Bulbarelli, Elena Lonati, Emanuela Cazzaniga, Edoardo Ratti, Giuseppe Paglia and Paola Palestini

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070642 - 22 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The overlap between the geographic distribution of COVID-19 outbreaks and pollution levels suggested a strong correlation between exposure to atmospheric particulate matter and an increased risk of developing severe forms of disease. This correlation has been highlighted by several epidemiological studies, indicating the [...] Read more.

The overlap between the geographic distribution of COVID-19 outbreaks and pollution levels suggested a strong correlation between exposure to atmospheric particulate matter and an increased risk of developing severe forms of disease. This correlation has been highlighted by several epidemiological studies, indicating the existence of shared molecular mechanisms. Emerging evidence has highlighted the important role of lipid rafts in facilitating viral entry into cells. Specifically, the receptor binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein interacts with sialylated glycans of the monosialic ganglioside GM1 and GM2 that are particularly enriched in lipid rafts. This interaction has been proposed to facilitate ACE2 recognition by the spike protein and may contribute to early events involved in viral attachment and entry. Here, we reveal that A549 alveolar lung cells, after DEP exposure, exhibit a significant shift in ACE2 into lipid rafts, accompanied by an increase in the immature form of ADAM17, the sheddase responsible for ACE2 cleavage. Additionally, DEP exposure results in a significant increase in IL-6 release, while no changes were observed in IL-8 and sACE2 release. This treatment does not cause significant alterations in protein levels or membrane redistribution of COX-2 and HO-1, proteins involved in the inflammatory response and oxidative stress following exposure to air pollution, and linked to COVID-19 pathogenesis. Finally, lipidomic analysis by UHPLC-MS revealed that DEP exposure induces a significant increase in GM2 levels, and a concomitant decrease in GM1 and GM3 levels. Together, these results indicate that DEP exposure remodels lipid raft-associated molecular features in A549 cells, including ACE2 membrane redistribution, altered ganglioside composition, and increased IL-6 release. Although these changes may be relevant to cellular mechanisms associated with SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility, the present study does not directly assess viral binding, viral entry, or infection, and further functional studies are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Airborne Contaminants Exposure on Early Health Damage Biomarkers: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1291 KB

Open AccessArticle

Uncovering Urinary Neonicotinoid Exposure Signatures Among Older Adults in South China: A Multicenter Biomonitoring Study

by Xiaoxiao Chen, Chiqun Shan, Yiming Ge, Yuli Lin, Bo Fu, Canrong Zheng, Yuhua Huang and Shaoyou Lu

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070641 - 22 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Neonicotinoid insecticides (NEOs) are widely used neuroactive pesticides, but biomonitoring evidence among older adults remains limited. This multicenter cross-sectional study characterized urinary exposure profiles of NEOs and their metabolites among 419 older adults from South China. Ten urinary NEO biomarkers, including six parent [...] Read more.

Neonicotinoid insecticides (NEOs) are widely used neuroactive pesticides, but biomonitoring evidence among older adults remains limited. This multicenter cross-sectional study characterized urinary exposure profiles of NEOs and their metabolites among 419 older adults from South China. Ten urinary NEO biomarkers, including six parent compounds and four metabolites, were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. NEOs were frequently detected in urine samples; except for thiacloprid and acetamiprid, with detection frequencies of 81.67% and 65.48%, respectively, all other compounds were detected in more than 90% of participants. Among the parent NEOs, clothianidin had the highest median concentration (1.402 μg/L), followed by dinotefuran (1.240 μg/L) and thiamethoxam (0.888 μg/L). The main metabolite was N-desmethyl-acetamiprid (1.643 μg/L). Looking at the overall composition, dinotefuran, clothianidin, thiamethoxam, and N-desmethyl-acetamiprid were the biggest contributors to the total urinary NEO burden, though their shares varied by region and recruitment center. Correlation analysis pointed to common co-exposure patterns, especially between thiamethoxam and clothianidin, and between imidacloprid and its metabolites. In exploratory analyses, N-desmethyl-thiamethoxam showed a positive correlation pattern, with significant positive correlations with glucose, glycated hemoglobin, triglycerides, and alanine aminotransferase (all q < 0.01). CLO was positively correlated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (q < 0.05). These findings indicate widespread co-exposure to multiple NEOs among older adults in South China and highlight the need for longitudinal studies to clarify exposure sources, temporal variability, and potential health implications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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20 pages, 4321 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cellulose Acetate-Based Membranes Recovered from Black-and-White Cinematographic Films for the Simultaneous Removal of Nitrate and Phosphate Anions from Water by Nanofiltration

by Aurelia Cristina Nechifor, Paul Constantin Albu, Alexandra Raluca Grosu, Geani-Teodor Man and Vlad-Alexandru Grosu

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070640 - 22 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Among the micropollutants of medium-depth waters in isolated inhabited areas, the inorganic ones deserve special attention: nitrate anion (NO₃⁻) and phosphate anions (HxPO₄^−(3−x)). The individual removal of these anions from water is widely studied, with different methods [...] Read more.

Among the micropollutants of medium-depth waters in isolated inhabited areas, the inorganic ones deserve special attention: nitrate anion (NO₃⁻) and phosphate anions (HxPO₄^−(3−x)). The individual removal of these anions from water is widely studied, with different methods being found: chemical, ion exchange, or biological. This paper presents a membrane method for the simultaneous removal of nitrate anion and phosphate anions from dilute synthetic aqueous solutions. The developed method is nanofiltration using composite membranes made of cellulose acetate (CA) and silver nanoparticles (Agnp). The composite membranes were made by phase inversion of the dimethylformamide (DMF) solution containing the two components (CA–Agnp) on a polypropylene (PP) capillary fiber using deionized water as a coagulant. The DMF solution of CA containing Agnp was obtained by dissolving black-and-white cinematographic films (exposed and unexposed to light). CA–Agnp–PP composite membranes were tested for the simultaneous removal of nitrate anion and phosphate anions from aqueous solution by nanofiltration at pressures ranging from 5 to 25 bars. A removal of over 98% of phosphate anions and more than 95% of nitrate anions was achieved. Fluxes of 10 L·m⁻²·h⁻¹ were obtained for the working pressure of 15 atm, depending on the pH, flow rate, and concentration of the feed water. The variable parameters considered were also the concentrations of CA and Agnp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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14 pages, 1463 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parental Lifetime PBSA Exposure Induces Neurodevelopmental Toxicity in F1 Zebrafish

by Ruo Chen, Jie Chen, Junyan Tao and Wei Huang

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070639 - 22 Jul 2026

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Abstract

2-phenylbenzimidazole-5-sulfonic acid (PBSA) is a commonly used organic ultraviolet (UV) filter frequently found in aquatic environments, raising substantial ecological health concerns. While some toxic effects of PBSA on aquatic organisms have been reported, its intergenerational developmental and neurotoxic risks remain poorly understood. In [...] Read more.

2-phenylbenzimidazole-5-sulfonic acid (PBSA) is a commonly used organic ultraviolet (UV) filter frequently found in aquatic environments, raising substantial ecological health concerns. While some toxic effects of PBSA on aquatic organisms have been reported, its intergenerational developmental and neurotoxic risks remain poorly understood. In this study, we established a zebrafish life-cycle exposure model to explore the intergenerational toxicity of environmentally relevant concentrations of PBSA (0.2, 2, and 20 μg/L). Offspring were categorized into three exposure groups: parental exposure only (F0+/F1−), parental exposure with continuous F1 exposure (F0+/F1+), and only F1 exposure without parental treatment (F0−/F1+). Our findings demonstrate the transfer of PBSA from parental gonads to F1 embryos. Parental lifetime exposure significantly inhibited somitogenesis and increased mortality and malformation rates in the F1 generation, with the most pronounced developmental damage observed in the F0+/F1+ group. Whole-mount immunohistochemistry revealed that PBSA notably reduced motor neuron axon length in F1 larvae, accompanied by downregulation of developmental-related genes including gap43, mbp, and shha. Mechanistically, the F0+/F1− group exhibited a marked increase in MDA levels. Excessive ROS accumulation and reduced CAT activity were specifically observed in the F0+/F1+ group, whereas the F0+/F1− and F0−/F1+ groups showed significantly elevated CAT activity, jointly driving developmental and neurotoxic changes. In silico predictions indicated low acute aquatic toxicity of PBSA, contradicting its observed intergenerational risks. Our findings demonstrate that parental lifetime PBSA exposure can induce significant intergenerational neurodevelopmental toxicity in zebrafish offspring by disrupting oxidative balance and neural gene expression, with continuous offspring exposure further aggravating the adverse effects. This research underscores that traditional single-generation toxicity assessments underestimate the ecological dangers of UV filters. It also offers new insights into the environmental risk evaluation of PBSA and similar emerging contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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25 pages, 2530 KB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Contaminants in Groundwater from the Central–Northeastern Part of the Romanian Plain and the Associated Risk Assessment

by Crinela Dumitrescu, Claudia Stihi, Roxana Elena Ionete, Elisabeta-Irina Geană, Corina Teodora Ciucure and Petre Brețcan

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070638 - 21 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Groundwater is a vital resource for drinking water supply, agriculture, and industrial activities. However, contamination by organic pollutants may pose significant threats to both ecosystem integrity and human health. This study assessed the environmental and human health risks associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [...] Read more.

Groundwater is a vital resource for drinking water supply, agriculture, and industrial activities. However, contamination by organic pollutants may pose significant threats to both ecosystem integrity and human health. This study assessed the environmental and human health risks associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in groundwater collected from 27 localities in the central–northeastern Romanian Plain. The concentrations of naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene, and indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection. Benzo[a]pyrene concentrations ranged from <LOD to 0.08 ng/L, while total concentrations varied between 2.56 to 11.2 ng/L. The environmental risk associated with groundwater contamination was classified as low to moderate, with total risk coefficients ranged from 0.2 to 2.3. Potential contamination sources were identified using the diagnostic ratio method, complemented by multivariate statistical analysis, indicating predominantly pyrogenic and mixed pyrogenic–petrogenic sources. Human health risk assessment indicated that groundwater ingestion posed neither non-carcinogenic risks (Hazard Index, HI < 1) nor unacceptable carcinogenic risks. The Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) values ranged from 5.7 × 10⁻⁹ to 2.2 × 10⁻⁸ for infants, 2.7 × 10⁻⁹ to 1.0 × 10⁻⁸ for children, and 1.5 × 10⁻⁹ to 6.1 × 10⁻⁹ for adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water, Air and Soil Pollution Monitoring, Modeling and Restoration, 2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 4300 KB

Open AccessReview

Antibiotics in the Environment: Occurrence, Enhanced Removal Strategies and Future Prospects

by Yinglu Tao, Wenjun Xie, Lei Xu, Cailing Shi, Xiangrui Wang, Gaoqi Li and Chufei Yu

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070637 - 21 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The widespread occurrence of antibiotics in the environment threatens public health and ecosystem safety. This review summarizes the global occurrence of antibiotic contamination across the different environmental media, i.e., water systems, solid wastes, and soils, and provides a comprehensive analysis of physical, chemical, [...] Read more.

The widespread occurrence of antibiotics in the environment threatens public health and ecosystem safety. This review summarizes the global occurrence of antibiotic contamination across the different environmental media, i.e., water systems, solid wastes, and soils, and provides a comprehensive analysis of physical, chemical, and biological removal methods, including their mechanisms, application advantages and disadvantages. It is deduced that physical methods aid in antibiotic enrichment, which leads to residual accumulation and fails to achieve complete degradation. In comparison, chemical methods are more efficient and rapid, but they are largely limited by high costs and secondary pollution. Biological methods, despite being appealing due to their low costs and environmental friendliness, may generate and spread antibiotic-resistant bacteria. To overcome the disadvantages of these conventional treatment methods, this review emphasizes the significant potential of integrated antibiotic removal systems, such as coupled advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), physical methods combined with AOPs and chemical methods combined with biological methods, which could achieve superior treatment performance. Future research should focus on optimizing and simplifying coupled systems and developing innovative treatment methods to enhance removal efficiency, reduce operational costs, and minimize secondary toxicity, thereby enabling effective antibiotic pollution remediation. This review summarizes the global state of antibiotic residues and stresses the importance of combined treatment methods for enhancing antibiotic degradation and removal, providing the valuable insights for green and efficient antibiotic treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)

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15 pages, 5395 KB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into the Mechanisms Driving the Dynamics of Antibiotic Resistance Genes During Pig Manure Composting

by Xun Pan, Rukun Cao, Mengxue Ge, Mengqi Dong and Weiwei Ben

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070636 - 21 Jul 2026

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Abstract

As a widely adopted approach for the resource utilization of pig manure, the ability of composting to reduce risk pollutants such as antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) has gained significant attention. Temperature plays a pivotal role in determining the effectiveness of composting, with the [...] Read more.

As a widely adopted approach for the resource utilization of pig manure, the ability of composting to reduce risk pollutants such as antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) has gained significant attention. Temperature plays a pivotal role in determining the effectiveness of composting, with the maximum composting temperature and duration of high temperature being key indicators of compost quality. This study investigated the influences of adjusting the thermophilic stage on the dynamics of ARGs during pig manure composting. The results revealed that the adjustment strategies of thermophilic stage controls (i.e., prolonging the duration of the thermophilic stage or raising the maximum temperature) slightly promoted the absolute abundance of total ARGs by 0.72–0.99 logs, whereas their relative abundance was notably reduced by 49.7~64.1%. Some ARGs (i.e., tetW, tetO, tetM, fexA, fexB, ermA, and ermB) could be effectively removed by the composting, whereas sulI, sulII, aadA, and tetL enriched the horizontal gene transfer and diversified the potential bacterial hosts. The variations of ARG profiles and the succession of bacterial communities could be divided into two stages, which coincided with the organic carbon (OC) content (82%). The nutrient factors, especially the OC content, were strongly relative to several ARGs, implying that the organic nutrient could be an important driving force in shaping ARG distribution, potentially by influencing bacterial community succession. Three potential opportunistic pathogens (Mycobacterium, Bordetella and Bacillus) exhibited positive correlations with enriched ARGs, highlighting the potential risks of the dissemination of antibiotic-resistant pathogens though the application of compost products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Aquatic Ecosystems: Occurrence, Fate and Effects on the Dissemination of Antibiotic Resistance Genes)

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18 pages, 2411 KB

Open AccessArticle

Source-Term Release Behavior and Mechanisms of Non-Metallic Leaching Parameters from Coal Gangue: COD, Sulfate, and Fluoride

by Siqi Xu, Yiyong Xu, Yufei Yang, Qifei Huang and Qingqi Die

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070635 - 21 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Long-term open-air storage of coal gangue (CG) can generate leachates containing oxidizable components contributing to chemical oxygen demand (COD), together with sulfate (SO₄²⁻) and fluoride (F⁻), yet their source-term behavior remains poorly understood. In this study, batch and [...] Read more.

Long-term open-air storage of coal gangue (CG) can generate leachates containing oxidizable components contributing to chemical oxygen demand (COD), together with sulfate (SO₄²⁻) and fluoride (F⁻), yet their source-term behavior remains poorly understood. In this study, batch and column leaching tests were conducted on multi-source CG samples and combined with ToF-SIMS (surface compositional mapping), solid-phase TOC gradient leaching, and PHREEQC-XGBoost-SHAP modeling (coupled geochemical–machine learning analysis). Batch-leachate COD levels ranged from 4.6 to 68.0 mg/L, while SO₄²⁻ and F⁻ concentrations reached maxima of approximately 317 and 1.29 mg/L, respectively. During column leaching, COD levels and SO₄²⁻ concentrations were highest at low liquid-to-solid ratios (L/S) and subsequently decreased, with maximum initial values of 186.6 and 3074 mg/L, respectively, whereas F⁻ exhibited delayed and persistent release at approximately 0.3–2.3 mg/L. Solid-phase TOC did not directly predict the COD response, and ToF-SIMS revealed aliphatic organic fragments associated with aluminosilicate surfaces that weakened or were redistributed after leaching. The COD–DOC discrepancy further indicated that dissolved organic matter alone could not fully explain the COD response, although the possible contribution of inorganic reducing species requires direct verification. Within the modeled framework, the sulfate source-term coefficient accounted for 69.4–76.9% of the modeled influence at L/S = 0.5–2.0 L/kg, while the influence of the HFO surface complexation increased during later leaching. In contrast, the F⁻ source-term coefficient remained dominant over L/S = 0.5–10.0 L/kg, accounting for 97.0–97.9% of the modeled influence. These findings support parameter- and stage-specific monitoring and pollution control at CG disposal sites. Full article

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15 pages, 3360 KB

Open AccessPerspective

Microplastics and Nanoplastics as Potential Metabolic Disruptors: Implications for Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes

by Umberto Cornelli and Claudio Casella

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 634; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070634 - 21 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Human biological matrices such as blood, placenta, lung tissue, and stool have been demonstrated to contain microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), indicating systemic dispersion and long-term environmental exposure. According to novel experimental findings, these xenobiotics may interact with pathways that overlap with the [...] Read more.

Human biological matrices such as blood, placenta, lung tissue, and stool have been demonstrated to contain microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), indicating systemic dispersion and long-term environmental exposure. According to novel experimental findings, these xenobiotics may interact with pathways that overlap with the early pathophysiology of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, potentially serving as metabolic disruptors. High levels of MP/NP exposure are thought to alter intestinal permeability structurally, which may have an impact on enteroendocrine L-cell environments and the ensuing incretin responses. In animal studies, downstream effects include altered bile acid balance and microbiome remodelling, which is defined by a decrease in taxa that produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). These xenobiotics’ portal translocation provides a plausible mechanism for subclinical hepatic inflammation, which may function in tandem with conventional risk factors to disrupt normal metabolic signalling. We consider the translational theory of “MP drainage” as a conceptual approach to lower intestinal particle bioavailability in order to address these theoretical interactions. Nevertheless, its long-term safety, metabolic advantages, and therapeutic effectiveness are yet unknown and require further confirmation. This perspective provides a framework for creating hypotheses that will direct future experimental and epidemiological studies in environmental metabolic toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Exposure to Microplastics: Kinetics, Mixtures and Markers)

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13 pages, 1798 KB

Open AccessArticle

Photodegradation of Buspirone: Ecotoxicological Assessment and Identification of Photoproducts

by Grzegorz Nałęcz-Jawecki, Marta Kozak, Joanna Giebułtowicz, Milena Wawryniuk and Agata Drobniewska

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070633 - 20 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Buspirone is an anxiolytic drug used for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Even though it was patented 50 years ago, it is still among the top three most commonly prescribed anti-anxiety medications in the US. Its fate in the environment and ecotoxic [...] Read more.

Buspirone is an anxiolytic drug used for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Even though it was patented 50 years ago, it is still among the top three most commonly prescribed anti-anxiety medications in the US. Its fate in the environment and ecotoxic effects have not yet been assessed. In this study, the direct and indirect (with humic acids) photodegradation of buspirone was assessed using the SunTest CPS+ sunlight simulator in two radiation ranges: 280–800 nm and 290–800 nm. The concentration of buspirone and the formation of photoproducts were assessed using liquid chromatography with a diode array and mass spectrometry detector. Toxicity was assessed using biotests with luminescent bacteria and protozoan Spirostomum ambiguum, as well as in silico analyses on daphnia, fish, and protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis. Buspirone was degraded by sunlight. Expanding the radiation range from 290 to 280 nm accelerated degradation. Humic acids, however, had no effect in either case. The structures of 24 phototransformation products have been proposed. Neither buspirone nor most of its photodegradation products were toxic. Only two derivatives had a calculated 96h-LC₅₀ value for fish below 1 mg L⁻¹. The obtained results indicate a low environmental risk of buspirone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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25 pages, 410 KB

Open AccessReview

Copper Compounds: A Narrative and Regulatory Review of Agricultural Uses, Risks, and Environmental Assessment

by Alberto Angioni, Mattia Casula, Virgilio Stillittano and Francesco Corrias

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070632 - 20 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Background: Copper is a trace element involved in key physiological and biochemical processes in humans, animals, and plants, and its homeostasis is tightly regulated. However, excessive exposure may cause adverse health and environmental effects. Copper-based plant protection products contribute to dietary exposure to [...] Read more.

Background: Copper is a trace element involved in key physiological and biochemical processes in humans, animals, and plants, and its homeostasis is tightly regulated. However, excessive exposure may cause adverse health and environmental effects. Copper-based plant protection products contribute to dietary exposure to copper and remain indispensable for the control of several crop diseases. Methods: This review summarizes the current state scientific and regulatory evidence on agricultural copper, identifies major knowledge gaps, and discusses strategies to support its sustainable use. A structured literature review was conducted using the PECO framework to define eligibility criteria, while key principles of the PRISMA 2020 statement were applied to improve the transparency of study identification and selection. Results: The available evidence confirms the dual role of copper as an essential micronutrient and a potentially toxic element, with adverse effects depending on exposure level, chemical form, bioavailability, and physiological status. Although copper remains an effective agricultural tool, long-term use may promote soil accumulation and environmental impacts. Current environmental risk assessment frameworks, originally developed for organic chemicals, do not fully account for the environmental behavior of inorganic metals. The review also examines copper occurrence, biological functions, agricultural uses, environmental fate, toxicity, and regulatory frameworks. Conclusions: Sustainable copper use requires balancing crop protection benefits with human health and environmental protection. Dietary exposure from authorized copper-based PPPs is generally considered negligible according to current EFSA PRIMo assessments, whereas occupational exposure and environmental accumulation remain important concerns. Future environmental risk assessment frameworks should better account for the environmental fate, natural background concentrations, bioavailability, and speciation of inorganic metals such as copper, thereby improving the scientific basis of regulatory decision-making. Full article

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20 pages, 872 KB

Open AccessReview

Meloxicam in the Environment: Pathways of Entry, Ecotoxicity, and Removal Strategies

by Semyon M. Tyan and Irina B. Ivshina

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070631 - 20 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Meloxicam, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, is commonly used as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug in both human and veterinary medicine. Owing to its heterocyclic structure, toxicity to invertebrates, vertebrates, and microorganisms, and potential to biomagnify through the food webs, meloxicam persists in the environment and [...] Read more.

Meloxicam, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, is commonly used as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug in both human and veterinary medicine. Owing to its heterocyclic structure, toxicity to invertebrates, vertebrates, and microorganisms, and potential to biomagnify through the food webs, meloxicam persists in the environment and poses a risk to ecological health. There is still a paucity of information on meloxicam as a pharmaceutical contaminant. It is not included in priority lists, which means its environmental risk is often underestimated. This paper provides an integrative overview of the currently available literature (2009–2026) on the environmental occurrences, ecotoxicity, transport pathways, and removal strategies of meloxicam. The distribution of meloxicam has been most extensively studied in aquatic environments, whereas information on soils, plants, and terrestrial fauna remains limited. Bioaugmentation is the most promising strategy for reducing ecotoxicological risk, although its effectiveness against meloxicam has so far been confirmed only in a few model systems. The evidence presented here underscores the importance of strict regulation of meloxicam use and routine environmental monitoring. We hope this review will be useful to ecologists, microbiologists, and regulatory agencies developing strategies to mitigate pharmaceutical contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Emerging Contaminants and Human Health Risks)

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17 pages, 3017 KB

Open AccessArticle

Activation of Thiamine Pyrophosphokinase TPK-1 Contributes to 6-PPD Quinone-Induced Immunosuppression by Inhibiting Mitochondrial UPR in Caenorhabditis elegans

by Zhe Wu, Guocheng Hu, Yunhui Li and Dayong Wang

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070630 - 20 Jul 2026

Viewed by 440

Abstract

As an emergent contaminant, 6-PPD quinone (6-PPDQ) causes toxic effects in organisms, including induction of immunosuppression. Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) serves as an important cofactor for some metabolisms. We aimed to examine the role of thiamine pyrophosphokinase TPK-1 in modulating 6-PPD-induced immunosuppression. Using Caenorhabditis [...] Read more.

As an emergent contaminant, 6-PPD quinone (6-PPDQ) causes toxic effects in organisms, including induction of immunosuppression. Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) serves as an important cofactor for some metabolisms. We aimed to examine the role of thiamine pyrophosphokinase TPK-1 in modulating 6-PPD-induced immunosuppression. Using Caenorhabditis elegans as the animal model, 6-PPDQ-exposure treatment was applied to nematodes from the L1 larval stage to adult day 3, and innate immune response was assessed by the expression of antimicrobial genes. In nematodes, 6-PPDQ (1–10 μg/L) elevated TPP content, which was due to an increase in the expression of tpk-1, and RNAi of tpk-1 could block 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. Meanwhile, RNAi of tpk-1 strengthened expressions of mitochondrial UPR (mt UPR) marker genes (hsp-6 and hsp-60) by activating three transcription factor (TF) genes (atfs-1, ubl-5, and dve-1) in 6-PPDQ-exposed nematodes. RNAi of mitochondrial UPR marker genes and three TF genes aggravated 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. TPK-1 acted upstream of these three TF genes to modulate 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. Moreover, RNAi of tpk-1 inhibited the expression of complex III/IV subunit genes, and RNAi of these complex III/IV subunit genes conferred resistance to 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. Additionally, these complex III/IV subunit genes functioned upstream of TF genes (atfs-1, ubl-5, and dve-1) to regulate 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. Therefore, our data provide a novel basis for 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression mediated by activation of TPK-1 and the following mt UPR suppression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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19 pages, 2594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Human Health Risk Assessment of Organophosphate Esters in Indoor Dust in Beijing

by Huizi Yuan, Ziyan Chen, Weicheng Zhao, Mingyang Li, Yinghong Wang, Xingru Li and Fangkun Wu

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070629 - 20 Jul 2026

Viewed by 356

Abstract

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), extensively employed as flame retardants and plasticizers, have emerged as ubiquitous contaminants in indoor environments following the phase-out of brominated flame retardants. However, the occurrence patterns, source characteristics, and exposure implications of emerging OPE congeners across diverse urban indoor microenvironments [...] Read more.

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), extensively employed as flame retardants and plasticizers, have emerged as ubiquitous contaminants in indoor environments following the phase-out of brominated flame retardants. However, the occurrence patterns, source characteristics, and exposure implications of emerging OPE congeners across diverse urban indoor microenvironments remain inadequately elucidated. In this study, twenty-eight OPE congeners were quantified in settled dust collected from eight representative indoor microenvironments and one outdoor reference site in Beijing, China. Total OPE concentrations exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity, ranging from 8.46 to 42.60 mg kg⁻¹, with the highest levels observed in subway stations and laboratories. Non-halogenated OPEs dominated the contamination profile, accounting for 80.7% of the total OPEs, whereas Tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP), 2-Ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP), Tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), and Triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) collectively contributed 85.1% of the overall burden. Correlation analysis and positive matrix factorization revealed that indoor OPE contamination was primarily associated with emissions from building materials, polymer-containing consumer products, furniture, and electronic equipment. Transformation-associated compounds such as Bis(2-butoxyethyl) hydroxyethyl phosphate (BBOEHEP) were detected in indoor dust, pointing to the plausible presence of OPE transformation processes in such enclosed settings. Exposure assessment demonstrated that dust ingestion accounted for over 98% of total OPE intake, resulting in substantially higher exposure levels in children than in adults. Although estimated non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks remained below established health-based thresholds, exposure was disproportionately driven by a limited number of congeners, particularly EHDPP, TCIPP, TCEP, and TEHP. These findings highlight the growing contribution of replacement OPEs to indoor chemical burdens and underscore the importance of incorporating transformation products and indoor aging processes into future exposure and risk assessments frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Toxic and Harmful Volatile Organic Compounds on Health and Ecology)

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24 pages, 38489 KB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Exposure–Recovery to 20 nm Polystyrene Nanoplastic Particles Is Associated with Residual Nuclear Stress in a Marine Fish Cell Line

by Lulu Yan, Jiaqi Su and Changbo Zhu

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 628; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070628 - 20 Jul 2026

Viewed by 562

Abstract

Nanoplastic particles are increasingly detected in aquatic environments, yet whether cellular stress responses persist after exposure cessation remains unclear. Here, Lateolabrax maculatus rostral (LMR) cells from spotted sea bass were continuously exposed for up to 30 passages (105 days) to nominal 20 nm [...] Read more.

Nanoplastic particles are increasingly detected in aquatic environments, yet whether cellular stress responses persist after exposure cessation remains unclear. Here, Lateolabrax maculatus rostral (LMR) cells from spotted sea bass were continuously exposed for up to 30 passages (105 days) to nominal 20 nm carboxylated fluorescent polystyrene particles (20 μg/mL), followed by 10 particle-free passages (recovery). Long-term exposure was associated with reduced proliferation and pronounced changes in cell surface morphology and ultrastructure. Although NP-associated fluorescence became undetectable during recovery, several nuclear-associated alterations persisted throughout the 10-passage recovery period, including TEM-observed nuclear-envelope alterations, filamentous actin (F-actin) reorganization, and sustained elevation of phosphorylated H2AX (γ-H2AX) foci. Several nuclear pore complex (NPC) genes were downregulated during exposure and rebounded after particle removal, whereas the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic distribution of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) remained shifted. Together, these findings indicate that prolonged exposure to this nanoscale polystyrene particle formulation was associated with nuclear stress responses that did not fully resolve within the 10-passage recovery window in fish cells. Because bulk-polymer and chemical-extract (leachate) controls were not included, nanoscale-specific effects cannot be distinguished from contributions of polymer chemistry, surface functionalization, fluorescent dye, or other formulation-related effects. Full article

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15 pages, 9704 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nitrogen and Boron Co-Doped Biochar-Activated Peroxymonosulfate for Degradation of Tetracycline: Performance and Mechanisms

by Zhitao Tang, Rongkui Su, Chuansheng Chen, Yiting Luo, Mingli Chen, Shunhong Huang and Xiancheng Ma

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070627 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 393

Abstract

Antibiotic residues pose a serious threat to environmental safety. In this study, nitrogen/boron co-doped biochar (NBLB) was successfully prepared using lignosulfonate, an industrial byproduct, as the precursor via a one-step impregnation–pyrolysis method. NBLB was applied to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to degrade tetracycline (TC) [...] Read more.

Antibiotic residues pose a serious threat to environmental safety. In this study, nitrogen/boron co-doped biochar (NBLB) was successfully prepared using lignosulfonate, an industrial byproduct, as the precursor via a one-step impregnation–pyrolysis method. NBLB was applied to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to degrade tetracycline (TC) in water. The results showed that NBLB-activated PMS degraded 93.4% of TC within 60 min, which was 42.6%, 20.4%, and 27.8% higher than those of undoped biochar, nitrogen-doped biochar, and boron-doped biochar, respectively. Additionally, the NBLB/PMS system exhibited high tolerance to common aqueous anions such as Cl⁻,

C O_{3}^{2 -}

,

{PO}_{4}^{3 -}

,

{NO}_{3}^{-}

and

S O_{4}^{2 -}

. BET tests indicated that the specific surface areas of undoped, N-doped, B-doped, and NBLB were 133.98, 280.22, 304.13, and 342.35 m² g⁻¹, respectively, exhibiting a significant enhancement in the specific surface area of NBLB. The co-doping of N and B constructed a hierarchical pore structure, providing an efficient dispersion platform for active sites such as C=O, BC₂O, and pyridinic-N. Quenching experiments and EPR detection demonstrated that the degradation of tetracycline (TC) in the NBLB/PMS system followed a synergistic oxidation mechanism dominated by ¹O₂ and

O_{2}^{• -}

, supplemented by ^•OH and

S O_{4}^{• -}

. This study prepared high-performance nonmetallic catalysts through a solid waste resource utilization strategy, providing a green and feasible path for the treatment of antibiotic pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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21 pages, 12000 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Tissues of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) in the Campania Region, Southern Italy: A Pilot Study

by Sara Damiano, Francesca Paola Nocera, Consiglia Longobardi, Valeria Iervolino, Carlo Romei, Angela Amoresano, Carolina Fontanarosa, Gennaro Battaglia, Rossana Schena, Annunziata Romano, Nadia Piscopo, Antonio Raffaele, Giuseppe Rizzo, Serena Montagnaro and Roberto Ciarcia

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070626 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 429

Abstract

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) are reliable bioindicator species for assessing environmental pollution. In this pilot study, we measured concentrations of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb) in liver, diaphragm, and testicular tissues from wild [...] Read more.

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) are reliable bioindicator species for assessing environmental pollution. In this pilot study, we measured concentrations of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb) in liver, diaphragm, and testicular tissues from wild boars collected across seven districts of Avellino province (liver/diaphragm: n = 87; testicles: n = 50). Pb reached its highest median value in the diaphragm (0.43 mg/kg w.w.; maximum 14.80 mg/kg), while Cd showed a pronounced affinity for hepatic tissue (median 0.15 mg/kg; maximum 0.62 mg/kg). Zn was the most abundant element overall, particularly in the diaphragm (median 20.51 mg/kg; maximum 46.81 mg/kg). Se concentrations were generally below the detection limit (<0.001 mg/kg), with only occasional outliers. Sex-related differences were evident: males accumulated more Pb in the liver, while females had higher levels of Cd and As. Spatial patterns identified AVMFS009 and AVAR009 as hotspots for Cu, Zn, and Cd, while AVCP003 emerged as the main hotspot for As. Overall, the results reinforce the role of wild boars as effective bioindicators in southern Italy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects and Mechanism of Endocrine Disruption and Reproductive Abnormality of Emerging Pollutant)

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17 pages, 551 KB

Open AccessReview

Oxidative Stress in Biotoxin-Induced Liver Injury: From ROS Generation to Cell Death and Therapeutic Intervention

by Ming-Ye Hu, Xiang-Yu Hou, Xiao Huang, Xue-Lu Yu, Fang Liu and Ji-Shun Yang

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 625; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070625 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 566

Abstract

Exposure to diverse naturally occurring biotoxins—originating from fungal, plant, and algal sources—poses a severe and escalating threat to global public health. The liver, due to its pivotal role in toxin metabolism, faces an increased risk of injury from toxin accumulation. Although extensive research [...] Read more.

Exposure to diverse naturally occurring biotoxins—originating from fungal, plant, and algal sources—poses a severe and escalating threat to global public health. The liver, due to its pivotal role in toxin metabolism, faces an increased risk of injury from toxin accumulation. Although extensive research has been conducted on toxin-induced hepatic injury, the heterogeneity of oxidative stress mechanisms across different injury phenotypes (such as necrosis, steatosis, and fibrosis) remains poorly understood. This review systematically addresses this gap by establishing oxidative stress as the central, convergent mechanism underlying biotoxin-induced liver injury. By critically comparing representative toxins, we examine the role of oxidative stress in various biotoxin-induced hepatic injury phenotypes and their underlying molecular mechanisms. Furthermore, we discuss the specific involvement of interconnected signaling cascades—specifically the Nrf2, NF-κB and MAPK pathways—in orchestrating different modes of cell death (including apoptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis), and summarize antagonistic strategies for biotoxin-induced hepatic injury from an oxidative stress perspective, highlighting their translational potential and providing a robust rationale for developing broad-spectrum, redox-targeted therapies. Full article

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5 pages, 159 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Unraveling the Health Impacts of Air Pollution: Assessments and Mechanisms

by Jia Xu, Ting Wang and Tingting Ku

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070624 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 405

Abstract

Air pollution has been widely recognized as a major environmental risk factor for human morbidity and mortality [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unraveling the Health Impacts of Air Pollution: Assessments and Mechanisms)

15 pages, 3400 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic Analysis of Pleiotropic Effects of Scandium Chloride on C2C12 Myoblasts

by Jingyu Zhao, Yingnan An, Jiankai Shi, Libing Ma, Xiaoying He, Ying Liu and Chuncheng Liu

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070623 - 16 Jul 2026

Viewed by 471

Abstract

The effects of scandium on skeletal muscle cells remain poorly understood. This study aims to determine whether scandium chloride (ScCl₃) affects C2C12 myoblast proliferation, and the cellular responses were assessed using CCK-8, flow cytometry, RNA-seq, and bioinformatic analyses after treatment with [...] Read more.

The effects of scandium on skeletal muscle cells remain poorly understood. This study aims to determine whether scandium chloride (ScCl₃) affects C2C12 myoblast proliferation, and the cellular responses were assessed using CCK-8, flow cytometry, RNA-seq, and bioinformatic analyses after treatment with 0.01 mM and 1 mM ScCl₃. We verified that 1 mM ScCl₃ significantly promoted cell proliferation by inducing the G1/S phase transition, while the low concentration had no significant effect. However, GO enrichment analysis failed to capture proliferation-related terms among the top 20 ranked terms. To address this, we grouped genes based on their expression patterns and combined transcription factor activity inference with Hallmark pathway enrichment. This strategy identified distinct functional modules responsive to scandium, involving mitosis, myogenesis, and metabolism, with key regulators including Foxo1, Rela, and myogenic transcription factors. Collectively, our findings suggest that scandium may exert regulatory effects on myoblast proliferation and modulate genes involved in differentiation and metabolism by coordinating multiple functional modules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Biomonitoring of Potentially Toxic and Rare Earth Elements)

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18 pages, 1286 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect Modification by Ambient Temperature on the Association of Ambient Ozone Exposure with Diet-Controlled and Insulin-Treated Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

by Yuanyuan Yu, Sujuan Hou, Yifei Li, Yajuan Wang, Qisijing Liu, Qirong Zhang, Shijun Ni, Chen Li, Liqiong Guo and Cha Han

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070622 - 16 Jul 2026

Viewed by 539

Abstract

Background: Previous studies have explored the association between ambient ozone (O₃) exposure and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). However, little is known about the association of O₃ with different GDM clinical classifications—diet-controlled GDM (GDMA1) and insulin-treated GDM (GDMA2), and whether [...] Read more.

Background: Previous studies have explored the association between ambient ozone (O₃) exposure and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). However, little is known about the association of O₃ with different GDM clinical classifications—diet-controlled GDM (GDMA1) and insulin-treated GDM (GDMA2), and whether temperature modifies the associations. Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study including 11,491 pregnant women between 2017 and 2023 in Tianjin, China. O₃ exposure levels for each participant were assessed using the Tracking Air Pollution in China dataset. Logistic regression models were employed to analyze the associations of trimester-specific O₃ exposure with GDMA1 and GDMA2. Distributed lag nonlinear model (DLNM) was used to identify potential critical gestational weeks of O₃ exposure. Ambient temperature was categorized using the 10th and 90th percentiles to evaluate the effect modification of extreme temperatures on these associations. Results: No statistically significant association was observed in the fully adjusted trimester-specific models. In the weekly-specific DLNM analyses, we observed 5–12 weeks before pregnancy and 26–28 gestational weeks as sensitive windows where O₃ exposure was weakly associated with elevated GDMA1 risk, and 11–25 gestational weeks for GDMA2. Each 10 μg/m³ increase in O₃ during pregnancy was associated with small increases in the odds of GDMA1 (28 weeks: OR = 1.019, 95% CI: 1.002, 1.035) and GDMA2 (25 weeks: OR = 1.018, 95% CI: 1.002, 1.035). High temperatures appeared to strengthen the observed association between preconception O₃ exposure and GDMA1. Additionally, O₃ exposure during pregnancy may increase the risk of GDMA1 among women aged <35 years, preconception obesity, gestational hypertension, and family history of diabetes. Conclusions: This study suggests possible weak weekly-specific associations between O₃ exposure and GDM classifications and indicates that ambient high temperature may modify the O₃-GDM association. These findings should be interpreted cautiously and require confirmation in future studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Monitoring and Epidemiology)

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21 pages, 2045 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial-Assisted Phytoremediation of Glyphosate-Contaminated Soil by Medicago sativa: Biochemical and Detoxification Responses, Gene Expression, and Dissipation Kinetics

by Ahmed A. A. Aioub, Ahmed Fayez Omar, Ahmed S. Hashem, Hosny Kesba, Sherif El-Ganainy, Wael Elmenofy, Mohamed El-Mogy, Mostafa Almaghaslah, Mustafa Shukry, Zhang Lijun, Qichun Zhang and Sarah I. Z. Abdel Wahab

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070621 - 16 Jul 2026

Viewed by 686

Abstract

Glyphosate (GLY), one of the most extensively applied broad-spectrum herbicides worldwide, frequently contaminates soil and aquatic ecosystems, posing serious threats to human health, non-target organisms, soil microbial communities, and environmental sustainability. In the present study, phytoremediation using Medicago sativa (MS) was evaluated for [...] Read more.

Glyphosate (GLY), one of the most extensively applied broad-spectrum herbicides worldwide, frequently contaminates soil and aquatic ecosystems, posing serious threats to human health, non-target organisms, soil microbial communities, and environmental sustainability. In the present study, phytoremediation using Medicago sativa (MS) was evaluated for the removal of GLY from contaminated soil under greenhouse conditions, with remediation efficiency enhanced through inoculation with two bacterial bioagents, Bacillus sp. h10 (BS) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa KZFS4 (PA). Biochemical parameters, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and malondialdehyde (MDA), together with detoxification-related gene expression, were investigated in the roots and leaves of MS exposed to GLY stress. The combined application of MS with BS + PA, followed by MS + PA and MS + BS, significantly decreased GLY residues in soil and increased GLY accumulation in plant roots and leaves after 1, 3, 7, and 10 days compared with MS treatment alone. In vitro batch equilibrium experiments demonstrated that BS and PA desorbed 33.63 and 40.56 µg g⁻¹ of GLY, respectively, thereby enhancing its removal from soil. The persistence of GLY was highest in contaminated soil without treatment, exhibiting a half-life (t₁/₂) of 52.66 days, whereas the shortest half-life (6.69 days) was recorded in soil treated with MS combined with BS and PA relative to sterilized contaminated soil. Furthermore, inoculation with BS and PA markedly increased SOD and CAT activities in MS tissues, while significantly reducing H₂O₂ and MDA accumulation, indicating alleviation of oxidative stress. GLY exposure also triggered substantial upregulation of detoxification-associated genes, including cytochrome P450, glutathione S-transferases (GST), glycosyltransferases (GTs), and ABC transporters in MS. These findings demonstrate that the integration of BS and PA with phytoremediation effectively accelerates GLY dissipation and reduces pesticide-associated toxicity in contaminated soils and plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Microbial Communities in Soil Health and Pollution Mitigation)

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10 pages, 1382 KB

Open AccessArticle

Decoupling of Bypass Efficiency and Mutagenicity of the 2-Acetylaminofluorene C8-Guanine Adduct by DNA Sequence Context

by Yi-Tzai Chen, Rui Qi, Jian Ma, Ang Cai, Bongsup P. Cho and Deyu Li

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070620 - 16 Jul 2026

Viewed by 431

Abstract

DNA sequence context plays a critical role in modulating the mutational effects of DNA damage. Here, we investigated how base identity influences the replication bypass and mutagenicity of a site-specific dG-AAF (2-acetylaminofluorene) bulky adduct in the well-defined AG*N and TG*N sequence contexts. By [...] Read more.

DNA sequence context plays a critical role in modulating the mutational effects of DNA damage. Here, we investigated how base identity influences the replication bypass and mutagenicity of a site-specific dG-AAF (2-acetylaminofluorene) bulky adduct in the well-defined AG*N and TG*N sequence contexts. By selecting adenine and thymine as 5′-flanking bases and systematically varying the 3′-base, we established a controlled system to examine sequence-dependent lesion replication. We found that the 5′-flanking base strongly affects the bypass profile, with AG*N sequences exhibiting uniformly low bypass (≤9.7%) and TG*N sequences showing markedly elevated bypass (23.6–50.4%) with strong sequence dependence. These differences may arise from the structure of the dG-AAF, whose conformation heterogeneities are sensitive to the flanking sequence context. In contrast, mutagenicity remains consistently low across all sequences examined, with a low frequency of point mutations and no detectable frameshift events. These results reveal a clear decoupling between lesion bypass efficiency and replication fidelity, where sequence context strongly controls lesion tolerance but has limited impact on mutagenicity. In total, our findings demonstrate that DNA sequence affects lesion processing, providing insights into how local sequence context shapes genome stability and mutational processes. Full article

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23 pages, 8496 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contamination, Source Apportionment and Probabilistic Health Risk of Potentially Toxic Elements in Surface Sediments of the Anning River Basin

by Wenkai Wang, Pengfei Che, Jinjin Wang, Yue Rao, Jian Luo, Jianbin Chen, Junxi Wang and Yanchang Kun

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070619 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 509

Abstract

The Anning River, traversing the mineral-rich Panxi region, is highly susceptible to contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs). This study systematically investigated the contamination profiles, source apportionment, and probabilistic human health risks of eight PTEs in the surface sediments of the basin. Index-based [...] Read more.

The Anning River, traversing the mineral-rich Panxi region, is highly susceptible to contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs). This study systematically investigated the contamination profiles, source apportionment, and probabilistic human health risks of eight PTEs in the surface sediments of the basin. Index-based evaluations revealed that Cd acts as the dominant ecological threat, exhibiting extreme enrichment, whereas V, Cr, and Ni reflect natural background signatures. Receptor modeling via Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) successfully decoupled four distinct sources: mining and smelting emissions (Cd, Zn), natural lithogenic weathering (V, Cr, Ni), mixed traffic/urban inputs (Pb, Cu), and a Tl-specific mixed source. Crucially, while deterministic approaches suggested safe exposure levels, probabilistic Monte Carlo simulations uncovered hidden vulnerabilities: children face a striking 60.51% probability of exceeding the acceptable total carcinogenic risk (TCR) threshold of 1.0 × 10⁻⁴, primarily governed by Cr and Ni. These findings underscore the urgent need for differentiated environmental management in similar mining-impacted basins. Specifically, stringent source controls for Cd must be implemented alongside exposure pathway interruptions to safeguard vulnerable demographics from Cr and Ni. Full article

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33 pages, 5598 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Organophosphate Esters with Different Functional Groups: Focusing on Microbial Degradation

by Jiani Zhang, Yangmei Fei, Shu Huang, Yang Li, Yujiao Cui, Jiahong Li, Shuo Li, Xiaotong Wang, Jiaxin Shi and Fanlong Kong

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 618; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070618 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 646

Abstract

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), characterized by diverse chemical substituents, have emerged as widely used flame retardants and plasticizers, replacing polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) under global regulatory actions. However, due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and multiple toxic effects, OPEs are now recognized as [...] Read more.

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), characterized by diverse chemical substituents, have emerged as widely used flame retardants and plasticizers, replacing polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) under global regulatory actions. However, due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and multiple toxic effects, OPEs are now recognized as emerging pollutants and have attracted extensive research attention. This review systematically compares structurally distinct OPEs in terms of their environmental occurrence, physicochemical properties, mobility, and biodegradation fate. We place special emphasis on recent advances in microbial degradation and enzymatic transformation pathways under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, with a focus on key degrading strains, metabolic intermediates, and underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, factors influencing biodegradation rates (including compound structure, microbial community composition, and environmental variables) are comprehensively examined. By identifying critical research gaps and proposing future directions, this review aims to provide a scientific foundation for sustainable management and effective risk assessment of OPEs in the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Constructed Wetlands for Emerging Pollutants: Fate, Ecotoxicity, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions)

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19 pages, 7510 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hidden Cobalt Hazards in Children: A Soil Risk Assessment at the Sokolov–Sarbai Complex

by Bekmyrza Zhumash, Yskak Aliya, Paramonova Tatyana, Irzhanov Zhassulan, Nugmanov Almabek, Yermoldina Gulnaz, Tokusheva Assel, Fominov Vladimir, Bulaev Aleksandr, Lyanga Petr, Zhumalynov Kuanysh and Bozhekenova Zheniskul

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070617 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 739

Abstract

Iron ore mining is often assumed to pose a low soil-contamination risk because magnetite is dense and metal-poor. We tested this assumption around the Sokolov–Sarbai magnetite–skarn complex (Kostanay Region, Kazakhstan) by sampling soils at four settlements and a nearby background site, analyzing sixteen [...] Read more.

Iron ore mining is often assumed to pose a low soil-contamination risk because magnetite is dense and metal-poor. We tested this assumption around the Sokolov–Sarbai magnetite–skarn complex (Kostanay Region, Kazakhstan) by sampling soils at four settlements and a nearby background site, analyzing sixteen elements in pseudo-total and exchangeable forms, and comparing classical pollution indices with disaggregated US EPA health risk metrics on the same dataset. The two frameworks diverge sharply. Integrated indices (PLI, PERI) classify the area as low-risk, yet the child hazard index (US EPA cobalt reference dose) exceeds one at all four settlements, driven almost entirely by cobalt—a single, highly mobile element released from the late-stage sulfide paragenesis of the host skarn against an already cobalt-rich regional background. This relative result—cobalt as the dominant contributor and Rudny City as the most affected settlement—is robust to exposure-parameter variation and, at Rudny City and Konstantinovka, to unfavorable bioaccessibility assumptions. Carcinogenic risk stays within the acceptable range and reflects regional-background nickel and chromium rather than a mining increment. For single-element, regionally elevated contaminants, integrated indices can therefore understate a genuine child health hazard; adequate assessment requires mobile-fraction characterization and bioaccessibility-explicit risk computation. Full article

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39 pages, 928 KB

Open AccessProtocol

From Environmental Evidence to Biomarker Selection: A Structured Decision-Support Process for Human Biomonitoring Studies in Contaminated Sites

by Elisa Bustaffa, Cristina Aprea, Alessandro Barbieri, Alessandro Benassi, Andrea Borghini, Saverio Caini, Piergiuseppe Calà, Filippo Cellai, Amalia Gastaldelli, Francesco Faita, Miriam Levi, Stefano Masi, Simona Mrakic Sposta, Katia Russo, Anna Solini and Fabrizio Minichilli

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070616 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 630

Abstract

Human Biomonitoring (HBM) is a key tool for assessing human exposure to environmental contaminants and identifying early biological changes potentially associated with adverse health effects. However, as contaminated sites are characterized by multiple pollutants, exposure pathways and biological targets, a structured decision-support process [...] Read more.

Human Biomonitoring (HBM) is a key tool for assessing human exposure to environmental contaminants and identifying early biological changes potentially associated with adverse health effects. However, as contaminated sites are characterized by multiple pollutants, exposure pathways and biological targets, a structured decision-support process is required to guide exposure assessment, biomarker selection, and early health-risk evaluation. This manuscript does not report biomonitoring results but describes the methodological process used to design the INSINERGIA_RT HBM study in two contaminated areas of Tuscany, Italy. The study design integrated environmental evidence, toxicological knowledge, epidemiological priorities, biomarker relevance, analytical feasibility, logistical considerations, and public health needs. Instead of proposing a universally applicable framework, the manuscript presents a structured approach that may support the design of HBM studies in similarly complex settings. Biomarkers are organized within a hierarchical model reflecting successive stages of the biological response to environmental exposure. A central feature is a mechanistic, multi-level approach encompassing upstream pathways (oxidative stress and inflammation), early markers of adverse effects and subclinical organ damage, including cardiovascular, renal, and respiratory alterations, and integrative indicators of cumulative biological responses, such as telomere length, epigenetic changes, and metabolomic profiles. Applicability is illustrated through an ongoing HBM study in Livorno and Piombino (Tuscany). Full article

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15 pages, 8448 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical and Microbial Regulation Inhibit Rice Mercury Accumulation in the Karst Region with High Geological Background

by Yanxin Hu, Zhengcheng Song, Lu Qiao, Xinyu Liang, Shaochen Yang, Junyao Yan, Langfei Wei, Jinjuan Li and Ping Li

Toxics 2026, 14(7), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14070615 - 15 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Methylmercury (MeHg) accumulation in rice is a major source of human MeHg exposure in some inland areas, yet the mechanism controlling mercury (Hg) accumulation in high geological background (HGB) regions remains poorly understood. Here, a field-scale remediation experiment was conducted in a karst [...] Read more.

Methylmercury (MeHg) accumulation in rice is a major source of human MeHg exposure in some inland areas, yet the mechanism controlling mercury (Hg) accumulation in high geological background (HGB) regions remains poorly understood. Here, a field-scale remediation experiment was conducted in a karst HGB region of Guizhou, China, using a synergistic strategy combining selenium foliar spraying and calcium oxide-based soil conditioner. The combined treatment reduced total Hg and MeHg concentrations in rice grains by 63.0% and 80.0%, respectively. The root uptake from the soil–water system was found to be the primary pathway controlling Hg transfer into rice grain. Mechanistically, the soil conditioner increased soil pH and reduced bioavailable Hg, porewater Hg, and soil MeHg by 53.6%, 59.8%, and 62.6%, respectively, whereas selenium foliar spraying promoted Hg–Se complexation and reduced Hg mobility in the paddy system. In parallel, the combined treatment suppressed Hg-methylating microorganism (e.g., Geobacter decreased by 65%) and hgcAB gene (hgcA: −65%; hgcB: −58%), while enriching Hg-resistant taxa and merA-mediated detoxification pathway. These coupled physicochemical and microbial processes substantially reduced Hg bioavailability, MeHg production, and Hg bioaccumulation in rice grain of the paddy ecosystem, providing an effective strategy for mitigating Hg-related food safety risk in the karst HGB region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Soil/Sediment Remediation and Wastewater Treatment)

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Toxics, Volume 14, Issue 7 (July 2026) – 104 articles

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