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Effect of Irradiated Nanocellulose on Enhancing the Functionality of Polylactic Acid-Based Composite Films for Packaging Applications

Journal Description

Polymers

Polymers is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of polymer science published semimonthly online by MDPI. Belgian Polymer Group (BPG), European Colloid & Interface Society (ECIS), National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM) and North American Thermal Analysis Society (NATAS) are affiliated with Polymers and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (General Chemistry )
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 14 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in MDPI journals, in appreciation of the work.
Testimonials: See what our authors and editors say about Polymers.
Journal Cluster of Polymer and Macromolecular Science: Polymers, Gels, Polysaccharides, Textiles, Macromol, Microplastics and Adhesives.

Impact Factor: 4.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 5.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4360

Latest Articles

21 pages, 64275 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization on Mode-I/II Interlaminar Strength and Fracture Toughness of Co-Cured Fiber–Metal Laminates

by Mingjie Wang, Hongyi Hao, Qinghao Liu, Xinyue Miao, Ziye Lai, Tianqi Yuan, Guohua Zhu and Zhen Wang

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2937; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212937 (registering DOI) - 2 Nov 2025

This study systematically evaluates the mode-I (opening) and mode-II (shearing) interlaminar strength and fracture toughness of four co-cured fiber–metal laminates (FMLs): AL–CF (aluminum–carbon fiber fabric), AL–GF (aluminum–glass fiber fabric), AL–HC (aluminum–carbon/glass hybrid fabric), and AL–HG (aluminum–glass/carbon hybrid fabric). Epoxy adhesive films were interleaved [...] Read more.

This study systematically evaluates the mode-I (opening) and mode-II (shearing) interlaminar strength and fracture toughness of four co-cured fiber–metal laminates (FMLs): AL–CF (aluminum–carbon fiber fabric), AL–GF (aluminum–glass fiber fabric), AL–HC (aluminum–carbon/glass hybrid fabric), and AL–HG (aluminum–glass/carbon hybrid fabric). Epoxy adhesive films were interleaved between metal and composite plies to enhance interfacial bonding. Mode-I interlaminar tensile strength (ILTS) and mode-II interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) were measured using curved beam and short beam tests, respectively, while mode-I and mode-II fracture toughness (

G_{I c}

and

G_{I I c}

) were obtained from double cantilever beam (DCB) and end-notched flexure (ENF) tests. Across laminates, interlaminar tensile strength (ILTS) values lie in a narrow band of 31.6–31.8 MPa and interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) values in 41.0–41.9 MPa. The mode-I initiation (

G_{I c, i n i t}

) and propagation (

G_{I c, p r o p}

) toughnesses are 0.44–0.56 kJ/m² and 0.54–0.64 kJ/m², respectively, and the mode-II toughness (

G_{I I c}

) is 0.65–0.79 kJ/m². Scanning electron microscopy reveals that interlaminar failure localizes predominantly at the metal–adhesive interface, displaying river-line features under mode-I and hackle patterns under mode-II, whereas the adhesive–composite interface remains intact. Collectively, the results indicate that, under the present processing and test conditions, interlaminar strength and toughness are governed by the metal–adhesive interface rather than the composite reinforcement type, providing a consistent strength–toughness baseline for model calibration and interfacial design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacturing, Characterization, and Application)

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10 pages, 3491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prestrain-Enabled Stretchable and Conductive Aerogel Fibers

by Hao Yin and Jian Zhou

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2936; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212936 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Aerogels combine ultralow density with high surface area, yet their brittle, open networks preclude tensile deformation and hinder integration into wearable electronics. Here we introduce a prestrain-enabled coaxial architecture that converts a brittle conductive aerogel into a highly stretchable fiber. A porous thermoplastic [...] Read more.

Aerogels combine ultralow density with high surface area, yet their brittle, open networks preclude tensile deformation and hinder integration into wearable electronics. Here we introduce a prestrain-enabled coaxial architecture that converts a brittle conductive aerogel into a highly stretchable fiber. A porous thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) hollow sheath is wet-spun using a sacrificial lignin template to ensure solvent exchange and robust encapsulation. Conductive polymer-based precursor dispersions are infused into prestretched TPE tubes, frozen, and lyophilized; releasing the prestretch then programs a buckled aerogel core that unfolds during elongation without catastrophic fracture. The resulting TPE-wrapped aerogel fibers exhibit reversible elongation up to 250% while retaining electrical function. At low strains (<60%), resistance changes are small and stable (ΔR/R₀ < 0.04); at larger strains the response remains monotonic and fully recoverable, enabling broad-range sensing. The mechanism is captured by a strain-dependent percolation model in which elastic decompression, contact sliding, and controlled fragmentation/reconnection of the aerogel network govern the signal. This generalizable strategy decouples elasticity from conductivity, establishing a scalable route to ultralight, encapsulated, and skin-compatible aerogel fibers for smart textiles and deformable electronics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymers-Based Functional and Smart Textiles)

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18 pages, 1647 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Plastics: Effect of Bio-Based Plasticizer on Crystallization Kinetics of PLA

by David Alberto D’Amico, Liliana Beatriz Manfredi, Norma Esther Marcovich, Mirna Alejandra Mosiewicki and Viviana Paola Cyras

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2935; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212935 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

This work investigates the effect of a bio-based plasticizer derived from used sunflower oil on the crystallization behavior of poly (lactic acid) (PLA), comparing it with that of the conventional plasticizer tributyrin. This study aims to explore biodegradable alternatives to petroleum-based materials and [...] Read more.

This work investigates the effect of a bio-based plasticizer derived from used sunflower oil on the crystallization behavior of poly (lactic acid) (PLA), comparing it with that of the conventional plasticizer tributyrin. This study aims to explore biodegradable alternatives to petroleum-based materials and to evaluate their potential in modulating PLA crystallization kinetics without altering the crystalline structure of the resulting sustainable material solutions with tailored performance. PLA-based films containing 5%, 10%, and 15% plasticizer were prepared and characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarized optical microscopy (POM), and X-Ray diffraction (XRD). DSC analysis showed a decrease in the glass transition temperatures upon plasticization, with tributyrin producing a more pronounced effect than the recycled sunflower oil plasticizer. XRD patterns confirmed that the crystalline form of PLA remained unchanged regardless of plasticizer type or content. POM revealed that both plasticizers influenced crystallization kinetics, with the bio-plasticizer promoting larger and more sparsely distributed spherulites than tributyrin, indicating differences in nucleation efficiency and crystal growth. Crystallization kinetics were further analyzed using the Avrami model, the Lauritzen-Hoffman theory, and the isoconversional method. Avrami analysis indicated that nucleation mechanisms were largely unaffected, although the overall crystallization rate increased upon plasticization. Lauritzen-Hoffman analysis confirmed crystallization in Regime III, controlled by nucleation, while isoconversional analysis showed reduced activation energy in plasticized PLA. These findings highlight the ability of bio-derived plasticizers to modulate PLA crystallization, promoting the valorization of a food industry residue as a sustainable plasticizer. This study hopes to contribute relevant knowledge to emerging areas of polymer processing, such as 3D printing, to develop sustainable and high-performance PLA-based materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials in Food Science)

26 pages, 1663 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Analytical Study of Nanolignin/Methylcellulose-Coated Groundwood and Cotton Linter Model Papers

by Mia Bloss, Marianne Odlyha and Charis Theodorakopoulos

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2934; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212934 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

This paper presents the synthesis of sustainable lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) and their application in methylcellulose (MC) as LNP/MC coatings for handmade papers. LNPs were produced from bulk kraft lignin via an acetone/water and sonication method, then incorporated into a 1 wt% methylcellulose (MC) [...] Read more.

This paper presents the synthesis of sustainable lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) and their application in methylcellulose (MC) as LNP/MC coatings for handmade papers. LNPs were produced from bulk kraft lignin via an acetone/water and sonication method, then incorporated into a 1 wt% methylcellulose (MC) matrix at concentrations of 0.4, 1, and 2 wt%. Groundwood and cotton linter papers were coated and exposed to 90 °C and 45% relative humidity (RH) for 16 days and the samples’ response to ageing at different concentrations of nanolignin was tested using a multi-analytical approach. The morphology of the LNPs was revealed with scanning electron microscopy, and most LNPs measured below a diameter of 30.8 nm. Colourimetry showed coated samples were inherently darker than uncoated samples but mostly stable in colour. pH remained near neutral for coated groundwood papers during ageing, but cotton papers were consistently acidic. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy identified spectral similarities between uncoated and coated groundwood samples at approximately 1635 cm^–1 and 1725 cm^–1, attributed to carbonyl and carboxyl groups, suggesting that LNPs did not contribute to the formation of these groups during ageing. Controlled environment dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA-RH) found improved consolidation and lower elongation in most LNP/MC-treated samples. These results indicate that there may be potential for LNPs within paper conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Study on Lignin-Containing Composites)

17 pages, 4221 KB

Open AccessArticle

Flame-Retardant Properties of a Styrene-Vinyl Tetrazole Copolymer Additive in an LDPE/EVA Blend

by Karla Fabiola Rodríguez Ramírez, Jesús Francisco Lara Sánchez, Orlando Castro Reyna, Pedro Espinoza Martínez, Jesús Alejandro Espinosa Muñoz, José David Zuluaga Parra, Rachel Faverzani Magnago, Saul Sanchez Valdés and Luciano da Silva

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2933; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212933 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

In this work, we report the effect of combining styrene-vinyl tetrazole copolymer (StVTz) and ammonium polyphosphate (APP) on the thermal degradation, mechanical properties, flame retardancy, and char formation of low-density polyethylene with ethyl vinyl acetate (LDPE/EVA) composites. The tetrazole heterocycle exhibits high thermal [...] Read more.

In this work, we report the effect of combining styrene-vinyl tetrazole copolymer (StVTz) and ammonium polyphosphate (APP) on the thermal degradation, mechanical properties, flame retardancy, and char formation of low-density polyethylene with ethyl vinyl acetate (LDPE/EVA) composites. The tetrazole heterocycle exhibits high thermal stability (>200 °C), and during its thermal decomposition, it releases non-toxic nitrogen gas. Its degradation generates reactive species capable of cross-linking the polymer chains, thereby promoting the formation of a protective char layer. To evaluate the influence of composition on the intumescent flame-retardant (IFR) properties of LDPE/EVA blends, different concentrations of APP and StVTz additives were incorporated. The composites were prepared in an internal mixer (Brabender Intelli-Torque Plasti-Corder). Test specimens were obtained by compression molding and subsequently cut into appropriate shapes for each analysis. Thermal stability was studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Mechanical properties were evaluated by tensile testing. Morphology of cone calorimetry (CC) residues was examined using SEM. Flammability properties, studied using CC, revealed a 70% reduction in the peak heat release rate (pHRR) and a 48% reduction in the total heat release (THR) compared to the neat LDPE/EVA blend. These results indicate that StVTz and APP act synergistically to improve the flame-retardant properties of LDPE/EVA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flame-Retardant and Heat-Resistant Polymeric Materials)

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31 pages, 3897 KB

Open AccessReview

Composite Polymeric Sucker Rod Guides: State-of-Practice, Causes of Failure, and Circular Economy Opportunities

by Chundu Gyem Tamang, Allan Manalo, Paulomi (Polly) Burey, Wahid Ferdous, Tristan Shelley, Mayur Patel and Tony Chapman

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2932; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212932 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

The oil and gas industry generates substantial amounts of polymeric waste each year, including sucker rod guides manufactured from premium thermoplastics such as Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS), Polyacrylamide (PAA), Polyamide (PA), and Polyether ether ketone (PEEK). It is estimated that, annually, approximately 18,600 metric [...] Read more.

The oil and gas industry generates substantial amounts of polymeric waste each year, including sucker rod guides manufactured from premium thermoplastics such as Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS), Polyacrylamide (PAA), Polyamide (PA), and Polyether ether ketone (PEEK). It is estimated that, annually, approximately 18,600 metric tonnes of polymeric sucker rod guides are discarded worldwide, contributing significantly to landfill accumulation. This paper critically reviews the behaviour of polymeric rod guides when exposed to downhole environments where high temperature, pressure, contamination, and severe mechanical stresses act simultaneously. These components are essential in maintaining system reliability, yet research and development on polymeric rod guides remain limited, and investigations into their degradation and failure mechanisms are non-existent. In addition, there are currently no established approaches for recycling or reusing worn polymeric guides, which restricts progress toward sustainability and contributes to the increased accumulation of polymer waste in landfills. This review highlights these gaps and discusses future research directions that could improve the performance and service life of glass-fibre-reinforced polymeric components, while also creating opportunities for recycling and circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recyclable and Sustainable Polymers: Toward a Circular Economy)

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27 pages, 4501 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of CO₂ Laser Treatment on Kevlar^® KM2+ Fibres Fabric Surface Morphology and Yarn Pull-Out Resistance

by Silvija Kukle, Lyubomir Lazov, Rynno Lohmus, Ugis Briedis, Imants Adijans, Ieva Bake, Vladimir Dunchev and Erika Teirumnieka

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2931; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212931 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

Since direct laser surface texturing of polymers is an emerging area, considerable attention is given to this technique with the aim of forming a basis for follow-up research that could open the way for potential technological ideas and optimization in novel applications. Laser [...] Read more.

Since direct laser surface texturing of polymers is an emerging area, considerable attention is given to this technique with the aim of forming a basis for follow-up research that could open the way for potential technological ideas and optimization in novel applications. Laser pre-processing of ballistic textiles can raise surface roughness of smooth para-aramid fibres and as a result can improve the adhesion of functional coatings applied in following processing steps, thus opening new possibilities for material performance improvement. The impact resistance of ballistic fabric depends on the ability of its yarns in contact with the projectile absorb energy locally and disperse it to adjacent yarns without undergoing severe damage or failure. In addition to the yarn deformation and fracture, yarn resistance to pull-out contributes to the dissipation of impact energy significantly. The objective of this study is to optimize Kevlar^® KM2+ fabric surface topographies by adjusting the continuous wave (CW) CO₂ laser parameters in such a way that it increases the surface roughness and resistance to the yarn pull-out from the fabric without destroying the unique structure of the of Kevlar^® KM2+ fibres. Experimental research measured data show increase in surface roughness by 50–53% and set of laser parameter variants have been obtained that allow for an increase in KM2+ 440D woven fabric yarns pull out force from fabric in the range from 50% up to 99% compared to the untreated one. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technical Textile Science and Technology)

13 pages, 5724 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Bowl Array Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Substrates via Ag Nanoparticle Self-Assembly on Polymer UV-Imprinted Microbowls for Enhanced Raman Detection of Microplastics

by Yihong Liu, Longchao Qi, Kaibo Guo, Xianlong Ning, Yiming Huang and Xun Lu

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2930; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212930 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

A facile, efficient, and cost-effective strategy for fabricating a bowl array SERS (surface-enhanced Raman scattering) substrate is presented. The resulting substrate is dimensionally compatible with micrometer-sized microplastics and integrates both SERS enhancement and light-trapping effects, enabling highly sensitive detection of micrometer-sized microplastics. Initially, [...] Read more.

A facile, efficient, and cost-effective strategy for fabricating a bowl array SERS (surface-enhanced Raman scattering) substrate is presented. The resulting substrate is dimensionally compatible with micrometer-sized microplastics and integrates both SERS enhancement and light-trapping effects, enabling highly sensitive detection of micrometer-sized microplastics. Initially, a pillar array template was produced via UV lithography, followed by UV imprinting to replicate bowl arrays with a diameter of 50 μm, a depth of 25 μm, and a periodicity of 100 μm. A gold layer was subsequently deposited, followed by the modification of its surface with AgNPs to construct the SERS substrate. The experimental results reveal that the optimal enhancement was achieved at an AgNP suspension concentration of 15 mg/mL. The substrate exhibited a detection limit of 10⁻⁹ M for rhodamine 6G with an enhancement factor (EF) of 2.02 × 10⁷ and successfully detected polyethylene (PE) microplastics of 5, 10, and 20 μm at concentrations down to 100 μg/mL, demonstrating outstanding sensing performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Sustainable Polymer Science)

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19 pages, 986 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Lost Circulation Mechanism of Polymer-Based Drilling Fluid Systems in Deep Fractured Shale

by Yanbin Zang, Zengwei Chen, Yi Wang, Yan Zhang, Shengchi Xu, Junyu Xie and Wei Chen

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2929; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212929 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

To elucidate the lost circulation mechanism in naturally fractured shale, this study employs fluid seepage theory and fracture deformation theory, assumes the polymer-based drilling fluid system behaves as a Herschel–Bulkley (H–B) fluid, and develops a calculation model for lost circulation pressure that comprehensively [...] Read more.

To elucidate the lost circulation mechanism in naturally fractured shale, this study employs fluid seepage theory and fracture deformation theory, assumes the polymer-based drilling fluid system behaves as a Herschel–Bulkley (H–B) fluid, and develops a calculation model for lost circulation pressure that comprehensively incorporates fracture geometry, fracture stress state, drilling fluid properties, and the pressure differential between the wellbore and the formation. Research shows that the lost circulation rate of drilling fluid increases with greater initial fracture width, fracture deformation index, fluid consistency coefficient, yield stress, and pressure differential between the wellbore and the formation, while it decreases with increasing fracture radial extension length, fracture roughness, drilling fluid density, and normal stress on the fracture surface. The initial fracture width, fracture radial extension length, and fluid consistency coefficient have a significant influence on the lost circulation rate of drilling fluid. In contrast, the effects of the fracture deformation index and dynamic yield stress are relatively minor, indicating that they are not the primary controlling factors of fracture-induced lost circulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

22 pages, 5167 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigations of the Nucleating Agent Effects on Polypropylene of Pumice from Three Distinct Areas in Türkiye

by Yasin Özdemir, Metehan Atagur, İbrahim Şen and Kutlay Sever

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2928; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212928 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

This study investigates the mechanical and thermal properties of polypropylene (PP) composites incorporating pumice, a naturally occurring porous volcanic rock with high SiO₂ content, sourced from three regions in Türkiye (Nevşehir, Alaçatı, and Kütahya). Pumice was processed to particle sizes below 10 [...] Read more.

This study investigates the mechanical and thermal properties of polypropylene (PP) composites incorporating pumice, a naturally occurring porous volcanic rock with high SiO₂ content, sourced from three regions in Türkiye (Nevşehir, Alaçatı, and Kütahya). Pumice was processed to particle sizes below 10 microns to maximize nucleating effectiveness, and composites were fabricated by melt compounding. The distinct mineralogical composition, porosity, and surface chemistry of the pumice samples enabled systematic evaluation of how regional variations influence crystallization and mechanical performance. A multi-analytical characterization approach, including thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and standardized mechanical tests (tensile, flexural, and impact), was applied. Results revealed that Alaçatı pumice at 0.1 wt% increased the impact strength of PP by about 11%, while maintaining stiffness. This demonstrates that pumice, unlike conventional fillers, can simultaneously enhance toughness and rigidity. Thermal analysis confirmed improved stability, with higher degradation onset and maximum decomposition temperatures observed in pumice-filled PP. DSC results indicated that certain pumice loadings promoted nucleation and increased crystallinity, while excessive amounts disrupted chain packing. SEM examinations confirmed uniform dispersion at low loadings, with agglomeration at higher levels reducing impact resistance. This work provides the first systematic demonstration of pumice powders as effective nucleating agents in PP, combining regional mineralogical diversity with measurable performance benefits. These findings indicate that pumice can serve as a sustainable, low-cost alternative to conventional nucleating agents, with potential applications in polymer components requiring improved toughness and thermal stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sustainable Construction Composites: Rheology, Mechanical Performance, and Durability)

28 pages, 2462 KB

Open AccessArticle

Polymer Flooding in Space-Constrained Reservoirs: Technical and Economic Assessment of Liquid vs. Powder Polymers

by Muhammad Tahir, Rafael E. Hincapie, Dominic Marx, Dominik Steineder, Amir Farzaneh, Torsten Clemens, Nikola Baric, Elham Ghodsi and Riyaz Kharrat

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2927; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212927 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

This study evaluates the technical and economic feasibility of liquid polymer emulsions as substitutes for powder polymers in polymer flooding applications, particularly in space-constrained, low-permeability reservoirs in Austria. Rheological tests determined that target viscosities of 20 mPa·s at 20 °C and a shear [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the technical and economic feasibility of liquid polymer emulsions as substitutes for powder polymers in polymer flooding applications, particularly in space-constrained, low-permeability reservoirs in Austria. Rheological tests determined that target viscosities of 20 mPa·s at 20 °C and a shear rate of 7.94 s⁻¹ were achieved using concentrations of 1200 ppm for liquid polymer 1 (LP1), 2250 ppm for liquid polymer 2 (LP2), and 1200–1400 ppm for powder polymers. Injectivity tests revealed that liquid polymers encountered challenges in 60 mD and 300 mD core plugs, with pressure stabilization not achieved at injection rates of 1–2.5 ft/day. Powder polymers demonstrated stable injectivity, with powder polymer 1 (PP1) showing an optimal performance at 10 ft/day and a low residual resistance factor (RRF). Two-phase core floods using PP1 and powder polymer 2 (PP2) at 1 ft/day yielded incremental oil recovery factors of approximately 5%, with a maximum of 8% observed for higher viscosity slugs. Economic analysis indicated that over a 3-year horizon, liquid polymers are 30% cheaper than powder polymer Option 1 but 100% more expensive than Option 2. Over a 10-year horizon, liquid polymers are 50% more expensive than both powder polymer options. Although liquid polymers offer logistical advantages, they are unsuitable for low-permeability reservoirs. Powdered polymers, particularly PP1, are recommended for pilot implementation due to superior injectivity, mechanical stability, and recovery performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Petroleum Engineering: Enhancing Performance and Sustainability)

25 pages, 5243 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ternary Blends of PLA with ATEC and TMC-200 as Medical-Grade Biodegradable Monofilaments for FDM 3D-Printing Applications

by Manasanan Namhongsa, Tanyaluck Mekpothi, Kittisak Yarungsee, Donraporn Daranarong, Gareth M. Ross, Sukunya Ross and Winita Punyodom

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2926; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212926 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

Poly(L-lactide) (PLA) is a promising biopolymer for biomedical applications due to its biodegradability and biocompatibility; however, its brittleness restricts its use in fused deposition modeling (FDM). To overcome this limitation, flexible PLA monofilaments with enhanced mechanical performance and printability were developed. In this [...] Read more.

Poly(L-lactide) (PLA) is a promising biopolymer for biomedical applications due to its biodegradability and biocompatibility; however, its brittleness restricts its use in fused deposition modeling (FDM). To overcome this limitation, flexible PLA monofilaments with enhanced mechanical performance and printability were developed. In this study, PLA was melt-blended with acetyl triethyl citrate (ATEC, 1.0–5.0 wt%) as a plasticizer and zinc phenyl phosphonate (TMC-200, 0.3 wt%) as a nucleating agent. It was found that the PLA with 3.0 wt% ATEC (PLA/A) exhibited the greatest flexibility, while the addition of TMC-200 further improved tensile strength and ductility. Specifically, the ternary blend of PLA/TMC-200/ATEC (PLA/T/A) exhibited a synergistic effect, achieving superior mechanical properties (tensile strength: 35.0 MPa, elongation at break: 232.0%, compared to 12.1% for pure PLA) and raising the degree of crystallinity (X_c) from 4.7% to 45.0%. Monofilaments (1.70 ± 0.05 mm) fabricated from PLA/T/A exhibited smooth surfaces, balanced mechanical performance, and excellent cytocompatibility (over 99% cell viability in L929 fibroblasts). Moreover, FDM-printed specimens retained enhanced mechanical and thermal performance, demonstrating material stability after processing. Shelf-life testing further confirmed the structural integrity of PLA/T/A monofilament after 8 weeks at 50 °C. Overall, PLA/T/A provides an effective strategy for producing high-performance, medical-grade PLA monofilaments with improved toughness, printability, and biocompatibility, enabling their application in biomedical 3D printing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced 3D-Printed Biopolymer-Based Composites)

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37 pages, 9322 KB

Open AccessReview

Bio-Based Composites with Encapsulated Phase Change Materials for Sustainable Thermal Energy Storage: A Review

by Gunasilan Manar, Mohamed Shalaby, Mohd Supian Abu Bakar, Bisma Parveez, Muhammad Imran Najeeb, Mohd Khair Hassan, Sulaiman Al-Sowayan and Mohamad A. Alawad

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2925; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212925 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

Thermal energy storage (TES) plays a vital role in advancing energy efficiency and sustainability, with phase change materials (PCMs) receiving significant attention due to their high latent heat storage capacity. Nevertheless, conventional PCMs face critical challenges such as leakage, phase separation, and low [...] Read more.

Thermal energy storage (TES) plays a vital role in advancing energy efficiency and sustainability, with phase change materials (PCMs) receiving significant attention due to their high latent heat storage capacity. Nevertheless, conventional PCMs face critical challenges such as leakage, phase separation, and low thermal conductivity, which hinder large-scale applications. Encapsulation strategies have been developed to address these issues, and bio-based composite materials are increasingly recognised as sustainable alternatives. Materials such as lignin, nanocellulose, and biochar, as well as hybrid formulations with graphene and aerogels, show promise in improving thermal conductivity, mechanical integrity, and environmental performance. This review evaluates bio-based encapsulation approaches for PCMs, examining their effectiveness in enhancing heat transfer, durability under thermal cycling, and scalability. Applications in solar energy systems, building insulation, and electronic thermal regulation are highlighted, as are emerging AI-driven modelling tools for optimising encapsulation performance. Although bio-based PCM composites outperform conventional systems in terms of thermal stability and multifunctionality, they still face persistent challenges in terms of cost-effectiveness, scalability, and long-term reliability. Future research on smart, multifunctional PCMs and advanced bio-nanocomposites is essential for realising next-generation TES solutions that combine sustainability, efficiency, and durability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased and Biodegradable Polymer Blends and Composites II)

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41 pages, 6759 KB

Open AccessReview

Essential Oils as Green Antibacterial Modifiers of Polymeric Materials

by Kamila Majewska-Smolarek and Anna Kowalewska

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2924; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212924 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

The need for new strategies to reduce the susceptibility of polymeric materials to bacterial colonization is growing, especially with the emergence of drug-resistant bacterial strains. Antimicrobial agents used to modify polymers should not only be effective against microorganisms in both planktonic and biofilm [...] Read more.

The need for new strategies to reduce the susceptibility of polymeric materials to bacterial colonization is growing, especially with the emergence of drug-resistant bacterial strains. Antimicrobial agents used to modify polymers should not only be effective against microorganisms in both planktonic and biofilm states but also be safe and environmentally friendly. Phytochemicals, which are components of essential oils, may be a suitable choice to help combat microbial resistance to antibiotics. Furthermore, they meet the requirements of green chemistry. Essential oils synthesized by plants as secondary metabolites are capable of combating both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria by disrupting lipid bilayers, affecting efflux pumps, compromising the integrity of bacterial cell membranes, and inhibiting the quorum-sensing system. They are also effective as adjuvants in antibiotic therapies. In this review, we outline the mechanism of action of various essential oil components that resulted in enhanced eradication of planktonic bacteria and biofilms. We summarize the use of these antimicrobial agents in macromolecular systems (nanovessels, fibers, nanocomposites, and blends) and provide an overview of the relationship between the chemical structure of phytochemicals and their antimicrobial activity, as well as their influence on the properties of polymeric systems, with a special focus on green active packaging materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Smart and Functional Polymers)

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40 pages, 3375 KB

Open AccessReview

Microplastics from Food Packaging: Polymer Degradation Pathways, Environmental Distribution, and Effects on the Human Gastrointestinal Tract

by Monika Lewanska and Renata Barczynska

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2923; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212923 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

Fossil fuels are currently the primary source for plastic production, with global production exceeding 400 million tons annually. The food sector remains the dominant application, particularly in the production of single-use packaging. Commonly used packaging is primarily made from PE, PP, PS, and [...] Read more.

Fossil fuels are currently the primary source for plastic production, with global production exceeding 400 million tons annually. The food sector remains the dominant application, particularly in the production of single-use packaging. Commonly used packaging is primarily made from PE, PP, PS, and PET. The versatility of these materials stems from their lightweight, functionality, and ability to extend the shelf life of food products. Unfortunately, constantly growing consumption generates vast amounts of difficult-to-degrade waste, which in the natural environment constantly fragments, generating hazardous microplastics (MPs). MPs readily spread throughout the biosphere and are now commonly detected in the digestive tracts of humans and animals. Current scientific reports indicate their potential contribution to the pathogenesis of numerous diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes, obesity, allergic reactions, and cancer. This link is believed to result from mechanisms involving physical toxicity, exposure to chemical substances, and microbiological interactions. The MP problem is global in nature and encompasses the entire life cycle of plastics, from production to accumulation in living organisms. This review aims to provide an up-to-date and comprehensive overview of the toxicological and environmental issues related to MPs, addressing the current research gaps and emphasizing their increasing relevance to human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in the Face of Sustainable Development)

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28 pages, 7655 KB

Open AccessArticle

Repurposing of End-of-Life Dialysate Production Polymeric Membrane for Achieving Sustainable Hemodialysis Process Water Management

by Nuhu Dalhat Mu’azu, Aesha H. AlAmri, Ishraq H. Alhamed, Mukarram Zubair, Muhammad Saood Manzar and Muhammad Nawaz

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2922; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212922 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

Polymeric reverse osmosis (RO) membranes are critical for producing ultrapure water for hemodialysis process, but once they reach their end-of-life (EoL) stage, mainly due to fouling, they are usually discarded—adding to the growing challenges of medical waste management. This study explores a sustainable [...] Read more.

Polymeric reverse osmosis (RO) membranes are critical for producing ultrapure water for hemodialysis process, but once they reach their end-of-life (EoL) stage, mainly due to fouling, they are usually discarded—adding to the growing challenges of medical waste management. This study explores a sustainable alternative by rehabilitating EoL thin-film composite (TFC) membrane and its reuse in recovery of spent dialysate. Using different cleaning agents that included citric acid (CA), EDTA, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), the mixture of CA and SLS (1:1) exhibited the most effective combination for balanced flux recovery, salt rejection, and creatinine clearance at lower TMP, achieving 90% conductivity reduction, 46.89 L/m²/h water flux, and 1.24 L/m²/h/bar permeance. FTIR, SEM, and EDX results confirmed the removal of both organic and inorganic foulants, while further process optimization revealed the critical role of cleaning temperature, SLS ratio and pressure on water permeability and improving creatinine removal. Under the optimal operational conditions, 99.89% creatinine removal, while restoring up to 80% hydraulic performance, yielding water flux and permeance of 59.36 L/m²/h and 1.79 L/m²/h/bar, respectively. These findings suggest that reduced dialysate production costs and minimize environmental impact can be significantly, achieved by extending the useful life of dialysate membranes, thereby opening a pathway toward implementing closed-loop water management and circular economy practices at dialysis centers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Emerging Polymeric Technologies for Hazardous Compounds)

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17 pages, 3599 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Strengthening Location on Seismic Performance of Masonry Domes Retrofitted with Composite Material

by Tulin Celik and Ali Ural

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2921; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212921 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

In this study, the effectiveness of a carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) system applied to different regions for the strengthening of historical masonry domes was investigated, and the effects of the CFRP material on the structural performance of different regions were evaluated. One model [...] Read more.

In this study, the effectiveness of a carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) system applied to different regions for the strengthening of historical masonry domes was investigated, and the effects of the CFRP material on the structural performance of different regions were evaluated. One model served as the reference and did not include any reinforcement. In the other three models, reinforcement was applied by wrapping the CFRP around only the skirt region (EPS), only the drum region (EPD), and both the skirt and drum regions (EPSD). The effects of these reinforcement methods on the structural performance were analyzed through experimental tests simulating earthquake effects applied to the dome body wall region. The experimental findings were compared with numerical modeling results obtained using LUSAS V19.0 finite element software, and the overall effectiveness of the reinforcement methods was evaluated holistically. The results show that applying CFRP reinforcement only to the drum (rim) region provides the highest bearing capacity and is the most effective solution in terms of structural performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Polymer Materials and Fiber-Reinforced Composites for Engineering Applications)

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16 pages, 8297 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Furfuryl Resin Type—Classical and Designed for Sand 3D Printing—On Cast Iron Casting Microstructure and Surface Roughness

by Katarzyna Major-Gabryś, Dawid Halejcio, Andrzej Fijołek, Jan Marosz and Marcin Górny

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2920; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212920 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

Resin-based binders are one of the main materials used in foundry molding and core sands. Self-curing sand with furfuryl resin is one of the most popular technologies in the production of molds and cores for complex, critical castings made of iron and non-ferrous [...] Read more.

Resin-based binders are one of the main materials used in foundry molding and core sands. Self-curing sand with furfuryl resin is one of the most popular technologies in the production of molds and cores for complex, critical castings made of iron and non-ferrous alloys. It has dominated small-batch production and the production of large-sized castings. This work is part of the research on new molding sands for mold additive manufacturing (3D printing). Three-dimensional printing technology in the production of sand-casting molds and cores is finding increasing industrial application in the production of castings from non-ferrous metal alloys. The aim of the research presented in this paper was to determine the influence of furfuryl resin type (classical and designed for 3D printing of sand molds) on cast iron casting properties. The pouring parameters were elaborated on the basis of the MAGMA software. Microscopic observations of castings, produced in classical and 3D-printed molds, were conducted, as well as an assessment of the roughness of the samples. The gas emissions from molding sands with both types of furfuryl resin were tested and analyzed in the context of the roughness of the castings obtained. It was proven that molding sand with furfuryl resin designed for 3D printing was characterized by lower gas emissions, which, in the case of molding sands with organic binders, is beneficial from an environmental point of view. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials)

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11 pages, 2501 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple Coloration of Calcium Alginate Fiber via Structural Colors

by Xinyu Yang, Xing Tian, Yu Zhang, Pengfei Gao, Jianhua Hou and Junyu Zhong

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2919; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212919 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

Seaweed fiber is a new type of functional fiber made from natural seaweed as raw material. Seaweed fiber has excellent moisture absorption, bio compatibilization, controlled degradation profile, and flame retardancy, and can be used to develop high-performance and high value-added textiles. However, seaweed [...] Read more.

Seaweed fiber is a new type of functional fiber made from natural seaweed as raw material. Seaweed fiber has excellent moisture absorption, bio compatibilization, controlled degradation profile, and flame retardancy, and can be used to develop high-performance and high value-added textiles. However, seaweed fibers are prone to swelling in salt ion solutions, making dyeing with traditional chemical dyes very difficult. In recent years, the research and application of controllable structural colors have been an important direction and hot spot in the textile field. SiO₂ nanospheres of different sizes were synthesized and combined with polydopamine as an additive to produce structural colors with high visibility. The resulting photonic crystals exhibited vibrant rainbow hues and were successfully applied to stain seaweed fibers. The color of polydopamine-coated silica photonic crystals (PDA/SiO₂) depended on the diameter of the SiO₂ microspheres, while their spectral purity could be tuned by adjusting the ratio of SiO₂ microspheres to dopamine hydrochloride. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Study on Natural Polymers and Their Applications)

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18 pages, 1710 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal, Rheological, and Moisture Absorption Behaviours of Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)/Lignin Composites

by Erdem Selver, Ayca Dogrul Selver, Abu Saifullah, Zhongyi Zhang and Hom N. Dhakal

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2918; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212918 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

Lignin and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) polymer have both been used as biodegradable materials for many years, enabling the development of eco-friendly composite structures. In this study, a PVA polymer was blended with different proportions of lignin ranging from 0.5 wt% to 10 wt% [...] Read more.

Lignin and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) polymer have both been used as biodegradable materials for many years, enabling the development of eco-friendly composite structures. In this study, a PVA polymer was blended with different proportions of lignin ranging from 0.5 wt% to 10 wt% and their thermal, rheological and moisture absorption behaviours were analysed and compared. According to rheology tests, addition of lignin decreased the viscosity of PVA up to 25% by creating plasticization effect. Thermal tests reveal that the addition of lignin had no significant effect on the melting behaviour of the PVA polymer. However, the amount of char residue increased from 0.48% to 4.15% as the lignin content increased to 10 wt%, indicating improved thermal stability of the PVA polymer. The hydrophobic nature of lignin particles helped to reduce the moisture absorption of PVA polymers up to 6% especially at high wt% lignin loadings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignin-Based Functional Materials)

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