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Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Circular and Green Polymer Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 February 2023) | Viewed by 31617

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Dr. Piotr Bulak

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Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Doświadczalna 4, 20-290 Lublin, Poland
Interests: bioremediation; polymer biodegradation; chitin; chitosan; element bioaccumulation; waste management; waste and biomass valorization

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Both plastics produced from petroleum and naturally occurring polymers such as cellulose or chitin, derived, in turn, from the anabolism of living organisms, are examples of compounds that find a very wide range of everyday use and industrial applications. However, the efficient waste management of synthetic polymers has become a huge environmental and economic problem, which best illustrates the ubiquity of microplastics in the environment. Management of waste polymeric biomass appears easier, but incineration and landfilling are methods which should be limited due to climate change and socio-political pressure. The best example of these trends is waste hierarchy, determined by the European Union and EPA, in connection to which, emphasis should be placed on the maximum use of the waste before it is finally taken out of circulation. The waste should become the raw material.

Biodegradation appears to be very interesting approach to polymer management, which is well suited to the current environmentally friendly expectations. Due to that, the aim of this Special Issue is to present the latest developments in the biodegradation of both synthetic and natural polymers and provide examples of their valorization in the context of the circular economy.

Example topics include (but are not limited to) the following:

Current trends and limitations on the biodegradation of waste plastics and biopolymers;
Management of waste plastics and biopolymers via different treatment technologies and their valorization;
Development of new bioremediation and biodegradation technologies;
Recycling, recovery and valorization of waste polymeric mass;
Novel and environmentally friendly polymeric materials.

Dr. Piotr Bulak
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Polymers
Plastics
Microplastics
Polymeric biomass
Polymer characterization
Bioremediation
Biodegradation
Biodegradable polymers
Environmentally friendly materials
Bio-based composites
Recycling, reuse, recovery
Waste management
Circular economy
Sustainability
Waste valorization
New technologies
Biofuels
Biorefinery
Biomass processing technologies

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 3464 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyurethane Foam Residue Biodegradation through the Tenebrio molitor Digestive Tract: Microbial Communities and Enzymatic Activity

by Jose M. Orts, Juan Parrado, Jose A. Pascual, Angel Orts, Jessica Cuartero, Manuel Tejada and Margarita Ros

Polymers 2023, 15(1), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15010204 - 31 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2608

Abstract

Polyurethane (PU) is a widely used polymer with a highly complex recycling process due to its chemical structure. Eliminating polyurethane is limited to incineration or accumulation in landfills. Biodegradation by enzymes and microorganisms has been studied for decades as an effective method of biological decomposition. In this study, Tenebrio molitor larvae (T. molitor) were fed polyurethane foam. They degraded the polymer by 35% in 17 days, resulting in a 14% weight loss in the mealworms. Changes in the T. molitor gut bacterial community and diversity were observed, which may be due to the colonization of the species associated with PU degradation. The physical and structural biodegradation of the PU, as achieved by T. molitor, was observed and compared to the characteristics of the original PU (PU-virgin) using Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microphotography (SEM). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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15 pages, 965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production and Characterization of Active Bacterial Cellulose Films Obtained from the Fermentation of Wine Bagasse and Discarded Potatoes by Komagateibacter xylinus

by Patricia Cazón, Gema Puertas and Manuel Vázquez

Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5194; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235194 - 29 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2047

Abstract

Potato waste, such as peels, broken or spoiled potatoes and grape bagasse residues from the winery industry, can be used for the biotechnological production of high-value products. In this study, green, sustainable and highly productive technology was developed for the production of antioxidant bacterial cellulose (BC). The aim of this work was to evaluate the feasibility of a low-cost culture medium based on wine bagasse and potato waste to synthesize BC. Results show that the production of BC by Komagateibacter xylinus in the GP culture medium was five-fold higher than that in the control culture medium, reaching 4.0 g/L BC in 6 days. The compounds of the GP culture medium improved BC production yield. The mechanical, permeability, swelling capacity, antioxidant capacity and optical properties of the BC films from the GP medium were determined. The values obtained for the tensile and puncture properties were 22.77 MPa for tensile strength, 1.65% for elongation at break, 910.46 MPa for Young’s modulus, 159.31 g for burst strength and 0.70 mm for distance to burst. The obtained films showed lower permeability values (3.40 × 10⁻¹² g/m·s·Pa) than those of other polysaccharide-based films. The BC samples showed an outstanding antioxidant capacity (0.31–1.32 mg GAE/g dried film for total phenolic content, %DPPH^• 57.24–78.00% and %ABTS^•+ 89.49–86.94%) and excellent UV-barrier capacity with a transmittance range of 0.02–0.38%. Therefore, a new process for the production of BC films with antioxidant properties was successfully developed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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18 pages, 4557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bioinspired Electropun Fibrous Materials Based on Poly-3-Hydroxybutyrate and Hemin: Preparation, Physicochemical Properties, and Weathering

by Polina M. Tyubaeva, Ivetta A. Varyan, Anna K. Zykova, Alena Yu. Yarysheva, Pavel V. Ivchenko, Anatoly A. Olkhov and Olga V. Arzhakova

Polymers 2022, 14(22), 4878; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224878 - 12 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1883

Abstract

The development of innovative fibrous materials with valuable multifunctional properties based on biodegradable polymers and modifying additives presents a challenging direction for modern materials science and environmental safety. In this work, high-performance composite fibrous materials based on semicrystalline biodegradable poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) and natural iron-containing porphyrin, hemin (Hmi) were prepared by electrospinning. The addition of Hmi to the feed PHB mixture (at concentrations above 3 wt.%) is shown to facilitate the electrospinning process and improve the quality of the electrospun PHB/Hmi materials: the fibers become uniform, their average diameter decreases down to 1.77 µm, and porosity increases to 94%. Structural morphology, phase composition, and physicochemical properties of the Hmi/PHB fibrous materials were studied by diverse physicochemical methods, including electronic paramagnetic resonance, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, elemental analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, mechanical analysis, etc. The proposed nonwoven Hmi/PHB composites with high porosity, good mechanical properties, and retarded biodegradation due to high antibacterial potential can be used as high-performance and robust materials for biomedical applications, including breathable materials for wound disinfection and accelerated healing, scaffolds for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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18 pages, 2723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Polystyrene Biodegradation by Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas alcaligenes Using Full Factorial Design

by Martina Miloloža, Šime Ukić, Matija Cvetnić, Tomislav Bolanča and Dajana Kučić Grgić

Polymers 2022, 14(20), 4299; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14204299 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2684

Abstract

Microplastics (MP) are a global environmental problem because they persist in the environment for long periods of time and negatively impact aquatic organisms. Possible solutions for removing MP from the environment include biological processes such as bioremediation, which uses microorganisms to remove contaminants. This study investigated the biodegradation of polystyrene (PS) by two bacteria, Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas alcaligenes, isolated from environmental samples in which MPs particles were present. First, determining significant factors affecting the biodegradation of MP-PS was conducted using the Taguchi design. Then, according to preliminary experiments, the optimal conditions for biodegradation were determined by a full factorial design (main experiments). The RSM methodology was applied, and statistical analysis of the obtained models was performed to analyze the influence of the studied factors. The most important factors for MP-PS biodegradation by Bacillus cereus were agitation speed, concentration, and size of PS, while agitation speed, size of PS, and optical density influenced the process by Pseudomonas alcaligenes. However, the optimal conditions for biodegradation of MP-PS by Bacillus cereus were achieved at γ_MP = 66.20, MP size = 413.29, and agitation speed = 100.45. The best conditions for MP-PS biodegradation by Pseudomonas alcaligenes were 161.08, 334.73, and 0.35, as agitation speed, MP size, and OD, respectively. In order to get a better insight into the process, the following analyzes were carried out. Changes in CFU, TOC, and TIC concentrations were observed during the biodegradation process. The increase in TOC values was explained by the detection of released additives from PS particles by LC-MS analysis. At the end of the process, the toxicity of the filtrate was determined, and the surface area of the particles was characterized by FTIR-ATR spectroscopy. Ecotoxicity results showed that the filtrate was toxic, indicating the presence of decomposition by-products. In both FTIR spectra, a characteristic weak peak at 1715 cm⁻¹ was detected, indicating the formation of carbonyl groups (−C=O), confirming that a biodegradation process had taken place. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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20 pages, 13817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PLA/PHB-Based Materials Fully Biodegradable under Both Industrial and Home-Composting Conditions

by Mária Fogašová, Silvestr Figalla, Lucia Danišová, Elena Medlenová, Slávka Hlaváčiková, Zuzana Vanovčanová, Leona Omaníková, Andrej Baco, Vojtech Horváth, Mária Mikolajová, Jozef Feranc, Ján Bočkaj, Roderik Plavec, Pavol Alexy, Martina Repiská, Radek Přikryl, Soňa Kontárová, Anna Báreková, Martina Sláviková, Marek Koutný, Ahmad Fayyazbakhsh and Markéta Kadlečková Show full author list Hide full author list

Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4113; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194113 - 30 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3133

Abstract

In order to make bioplastics accessible for a wider spectrum of applications, ready-to-use plastic material formulations should be available with tailored properties. Ideally, these kinds of materials should also be “home-compostable” to simplify their organic recycling. Therefore, materials based on PLA (polylactid acid) and PHB (polyhydroxybutyrate) blends are presented which contain suitable additives, and some of them contain also thermoplastic starch as a filler, which decreases the price of the final compound. They are intended for various applications, as documented by products made out of them. The produced materials are fully biodegradable under industrial composting conditions. Surprisingly, some of the materials, even those which contain more PLA than PHB, are also fully biodegradable under home-composting conditions within a period of about six months. Experiments made under laboratory conditions were supported with data obtained from a kitchen waste pilot composter and from municipal composting plant experiments. Material properties, environmental conditions, and microbiology data were recorded during some of these experiments to document the biodegradation process and changes on the surface and inside the materials on a molecular level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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13 pages, 3728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of a Coated Mitomycin-Releasing Biodegradable Ureteral Stent as an Adjuvant Therapy in Upper Urothelial Carcinoma: A Comparative In Vitro Study

by Federico Soria, Salvador David Aznar-Cervantes, Julia E. de la Cruz, Alberto Budia, Javier Aranda, Juan Pablo Caballero, Álvaro Serrano and Francisco Miguel Sánchez Margallo

Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3059; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153059 - 28 Jul 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1679

Abstract

A major limitation of the treatment of low-grade upper tract urothelial carcinoma is the difficulty of intracavitary instillation of adjuvant therapy. Therefore, the aim of this in vitro study was to develop and to assess a new design of biodegradable ureteral stent coated with a silk fibroin matrix for the controlled release of mitomycin C as a chemotherapeutic drug. For this purpose, we assessed the coating of a biodegradable ureteral stent, BraidStent^®, with silk fibroin and subsequently loaded the polymeric matrix with two formulations of mitomycin to evaluate its degradation rate, the concentration of mitomycin released, and changes in the pH and the weight of the stent. Our results confirm that the silk fibroin matrix is able to coat the biodegradable stent and release mitomycin for between 6 and 12 h in the urinary environment. There was a significant delay in the degradation rate of silk fibroin and mitomycin-coated stents compared to bare biodegradable stents, from 6–7 weeks to 13–14 weeks. The present study has shown the feasibility of using mitomycin C-loaded silk fibroin for the coating of biodegradable urinary stents. The addition of mitomycin C to the coating of silk fibroin biodegradable stents could be an attractive approach for intracavitary instillation in the upper urinary tract. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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14 pages, 1615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emulsion Stabilization by Cationic Lignin Surfactants Derived from Bioethanol Production and Kraft Pulping Processes

by Avido Yuliestyan, Pedro Partal, Francisco J. Navarro, Raquel Martín-Sampedro, David Ibarra and María E. Eugenio

Polymers 2022, 14(14), 2879; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142879 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1713

Abstract

Oil-in-water bitumen emulsions stabilized by biobased surfactants such as lignin are in line with the current sustainable approaches of the asphalt industry involving bitumen emulsions for reduced temperature asphalt technologies. With this aim, three lignins, derived from the kraft pulping and bioethanol industries, were chemically modified via the Mannich reaction to be used as cationic emulsifiers. A comprehensive chemical characterization was conducted on raw lignin-rich products, showing that the kraft sample presents a higher lignin concentration and lower molecular weight. Instead, bioethanol-derived samples, with characteristics of non-woody lignins, present a high concentration of carbohydrate residues and ashes. Lignin amination was performed at pH = 10 and 13, using tetraethylene pentamine and formaldehyde as reagents at three different stoichiometric molar ratios. The emulsification ability of such cationic surfactants was firstly studied on prototype silicone oil-in-water emulsions, attending to their droplet size distribution and viscous behavior. Among the synthetized surfactants, cationic kraft lignin has shown the best emulsification performance, being used for the development of bitumen emulsions. In this regard, cationic kraft lignin has successfully stabilized oil-in-water emulsions containing 60% bitumen using small surfactant concentrations, between 0.25 and 0.75%, which was obtained at pH = 13 and reagent molar ratios between 1/7/7 and 1/28/28 (lignin/tetraethylene pentamine/formaldehyde). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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10 pages, 2894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Crystal Structure and Accelerated Hydrolytic Degradation of Polylactic Acid in High Humidity

by Yutaka Kobayashi, Tsubasa Ueda, Akira Ishigami and Hiroshi Ito

Polymers 2021, 13(24), 4324; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13244324 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2478

Abstract

Highly crystallized polylactic acid (PLA) is suitable for industrial applications due to its stiffness, heat resistance, and dimensional stability. However, crystal lamellae in PLA products might delay PLA decomposition in the environment. This study clarifies how the initial crystal structure influences the hydrolytic degradation of PLA under accelerated conditions. Crystallized PLA was prepared by annealing amorphous PLA at a specific temperature under reduced pressure. Specimens with varied crystal structure were kept at 70 °C and in a relative humidity (RH) of 95% for a specific time. Changes in crystal structure were analyzed using differential calorimetry and wide-angle X-lay diffraction. The molecular weight (MW) was measured with gel permeation chromatography. The crystallinity of the amorphous PLA became the same as that of the initially annealed PLA within one hour at 70 °C and 95% RH. The MW of the amorphous PLA decreased faster even though the crystallinity was similar during the accelerated degradation. The low MW chains of the amorphous PLA tended to decrease faster, although changes in the MW distribution suggested random scission of the molecular chains for initially crystallized PLA. The concentrations of chain ends and impurities, which catalyze hydrolysis, in the amorphous region were considered to be different in the initial crystallization. The crystallinity alone does not determine the speed of hydrolysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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16 pages, 1677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biodegradation of Different Types of Plastics by Tenebrio molitor Insect

by Piotr Bulak, Kinga Proc, Anna Pytlak, Andrzej Puszka, Barbara Gawdzik and Andrzej Bieganowski

Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3508; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13203508 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8152

Abstract

Looking for new, sustainable ways to utilize plastics is still a very pertinent topic considering the amount of plastics produced in the world. One of the newest and intriguing possibility is the use of insects in biodegradation of plastics, which can be named entomoremediation. The aim of this work was to demonstrate the ability of the insect Tenebrio molitor to biodegrade different, real plastic waste. The types of plastic waste used were: remains of thermal building insulation polystyrene foam (PS), two types of polyurethane (kitchen sponge as PU1 and commercial thermal insulation foam as PU2), and polyethylene foam (PE), which has been used as packaging material. After 58 days, the efficiency of mass reduction for all of the investigated plastics was 46.5%, 41.0%, 53.2%, and 69.7% for PS, PU1, PU2, and PE, respectively (with a dose of 0.0052 g of each plastic per 1 mealworm larvae). Both larvae and imago were active plastic eaters. However, in order to shorten the duration of the experiment and increase the specific consumption rate, the two forms of the insect should not be combined together in one container. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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16 pages, 3423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fully Recyclable Bio-Based Epoxy Formulations Using Epoxidized Precursors from Waste Flour: Thermal and Mechanical Characterization

by Francesca Ferrari, Carola Esposito Corcione, Raffaella Striani, Lorena Saitta, Gianluca Cicala and Antonio Greco

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2768; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162768 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3640

Abstract

Organic wastes represent an increasing pollution problem due to the exponential growth of their presence in the waste stream. Among these, waste flour cannot be easily reused by transforming it into high-value-added products. Another major problem is represented by epoxy-based thermosets, which have wide use but also poor recyclability. The object of the present paper is, therefore, to analyze both of these problems and come up with innovative solutions. Indeed, we propose a completely new approach, aimed at reusing the organic waste flour, by converting it into high-value epoxy-based thermosets that could be fully recycled into a reusable plastic matrix when added to the waste epoxy-based thermosets. Throughout the research activity, the organic waste was transformed into an epoxidized prepolymer, which was then mixed with a bio-based monomer cured with a cleavable ammine. The latter reactant was based on Recyclamine™ by Connora Technologies, and in this paper, we demonstrate that this original approach could work with the synthetized epoxy prepolymers derived from the waste flour. The cured epoxies were fully characterized in terms of their thermal, rheological, and flexural properties. The results obtained showed optimal recyclability of the new resin developed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Biodegradation and Polymeric Biomass Valorization)

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