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Polymers
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Enzymatic Synthesis of Polymers
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Enzymatic Synthesis of Polymers

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2020) | Viewed by 31330

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Ramaswamy Nagarajan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Plastics Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA
Interests: biocatalysis; greener advanced materials (electronic, photo-responsive polymers, molecularly integrated hybrid nanomaterials, materials for energy conversion/storage); elastomers; thermal & morphological characterization of materials; roll to roll manufacture of flexible electronic products
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Ferdinando F. Bruno

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
U.S. Army Natick Combat Capabilities Development Command (CCDC) Soldier Center, Natick, MA 01760, USA
Interests: enzymatic polymerization
Dr. Subhalakshmi Nagarajan

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Firelands Campus, Bowling Green State University, Huron, OH 44839, USA
Interests: the role of wetlands in controlling algal blooms by reducing nutrient loading to lake erie; antimicrobial activity of polymers from flavonoids; environmentally friendly hybrid formulations for the removal of cyanobacterial toxins

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The last decade has witnessed an upsurge in the use of naturally occurring enzymes as catalysts for the syntheses of a wide variety of polymers. In addition to the mild reaction conditions used for syntheses, enzyme catalysis allows for the synthesis of polymers with a high degree of selectivity and specificity. Enzymatic synthesis promotes a greater energy efficiency by enabling reactions to be carried out at room temperature under ambient conditions in environmentally friendly settings, and increases atom efficiency by avoiding extensive protection and deprotection steps. Enzymatic methods have also enabled the syntheses of polymers, which often cannot be produced using traditional chemical approaches.

This Special Issue is planned in order to bring together a number of original papers and reviews covering (but not restricted to) the following topics:

  • Enzyme catalyzed syntheses of polyamides, polyesters, polyphenols, and vinyl polymers;
  • Enzyme catalyzed ATRP and RAFT polymerization;
  • Use of co-monomers in enzymatic syntheses of polymers;
  • Enzymatic immobilization methods for polymer syntheses;
  • Biological applications of polymers synthesized via enzymatic catalysis;
  • Enzymatic polymerization in non-aqueous systems;
  • Selectivity/specificity in enzymatic polymerization reactions;
  • Biomimetics in enzymatic polymerization;
  • Enzymatic degradation processes.

Prof. Ramaswamy Nagarajan
Dr. Ferdinando F. Bruno
Dr. Subhalakshmi Nagarajan
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Enzymatic polymerization
  • Oxidoreductases
  • Lipases
  • Laccases
  • Biomimetics
  • Antioxidants
  • Green chemistry
  • Biocatalysts
  • Enzymatic immobilization
  • Enzymatic degradation
  • Lignin

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 13654 KiB  
Article
Acid Treatment Enhances the Antioxidant Activity of Enzymatically Synthesized Phenolic Polymers
by Maria Laura Alfieri, Federica Moccia, Gerardino D’Errico, Lucia Panzella, Marco d’Ischia and Alessandra Napolitano
Polymers 2020, 12(11), 2544; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112544 - 30 Oct 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2739
Abstract
Phenolic polymers produced by enzymatic oxidation under biomimetic and eco-friendly reaction conditions are usually endowed with potent antioxidant properties. These properties, coupled with the higher biocompatibility, stability and processability compared to low-molecular weight phenolic compounds, open important perspectives for various applications. Herein, we [...] Read more.
Phenolic polymers produced by enzymatic oxidation under biomimetic and eco-friendly reaction conditions are usually endowed with potent antioxidant properties. These properties, coupled with the higher biocompatibility, stability and processability compared to low-molecular weight phenolic compounds, open important perspectives for various applications. Herein, we report the marked boosting effect of acid treatment on the antioxidant properties of a series of polymers obtained by peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of natural phenolic compounds. Both 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) assays indicated a remarkable increase in the antioxidant properties for most phenolic polymers further to the acid treatment. In particular, up to a ca. 60% decrease in the EC50 value in the DPPH assay and a 5-fold increase in the Trolox equivalents were observed. Nitric oxide- and superoxide-scavenging assays also indicated highly specific boosting effects of the acid treatment. Spectroscopic evidence suggested, in most cases, that the occurrence of structural modifications induced by the acid treatment led to more extended π-electron-conjugated species endowed with more efficient electron transfer properties. These results open new perspectives toward the design of new bioinspired antioxidants for application in food, biomedicine and material sciences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Synthesis of Polymers)
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20 pages, 8860 KiB  
Article
Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of D-Glucitol-Based Non-Ionic Amphiphilic Architectures as Nanocarriers
by Priyanka Manchanda, Katharina Achazi, Diksha Verma, Christoph Böttcher, Rainer Haag and Sunil K. Sharma
Polymers 2020, 12(6), 1421; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12061421 - 25 Jun 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3319
Abstract
Newer non-ionic amphiphiles have been synthesized using biocompatible materials and by following a greener approach i.e., D-glucitol has been used as a template, and hydrophobic and hydrophilic segments were incorporated on it by using click chemistry. The hydrophilic segments in turn were [...] Read more.
Newer non-ionic amphiphiles have been synthesized using biocompatible materials and by following a greener approach i.e., D-glucitol has been used as a template, and hydrophobic and hydrophilic segments were incorporated on it by using click chemistry. The hydrophilic segments in turn were prepared from glycerol using an immobilized Candida antarctica lipase (Novozym-435)-mediated chemoenzymatic approach. Surface tension measurements and dynamic light scattering studies reflect the self-assembling behavior of the synthesized amphiphilic architectures in the aqueous medium. The results from UV-Vis and fluorescence spectroscopy establish the encapsulation of guests in the hydrophobic core of self-assembled amphiphilic architectures. The results of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium (MTS) assay indicate that the amphiphiles are well tolerated by the used A549 cell lines at all tested concentrations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Synthesis of Polymers)
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9 pages, 2383 KiB  
Communication
Lipase-Catalyzed Synthesis of Renewable Plant Oil-Based Polyamides
by Maja Finnveden, Peter Hendil-Forssell, Mauro Claudino, Mats Johansson and Mats Martinelle
Polymers 2019, 11(11), 1730; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11111730 - 23 Oct 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3891
Abstract
Enzyme catalyzed synthesis of renewable polyamides was investigated using Candida antarctica lipase B. A fatty acid-derived AB-type functional monomer, having one amine and one methyl ester functionality, was homopolymerized at 80 and 140 °C. Additionally, the organobase 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (TBD) was used as a [...] Read more.
Enzyme catalyzed synthesis of renewable polyamides was investigated using Candida antarctica lipase B. A fatty acid-derived AB-type functional monomer, having one amine and one methyl ester functionality, was homopolymerized at 80 and 140 °C. Additionally, the organobase 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (TBD) was used as a catalyst. The results from the two catalysts were comparable. However, the amount of lipase added was 1.2 × 103 times lower, showing that the lipase was a more efficient catalyst for this system as compared to TBD. Moreover, the AB-type monomer was copolymerized with 1,12-diaminododecane to synthesize oligoamides of two different lengths. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Synthesis of Polymers)
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21 pages, 3351 KiB  
Article
Chemical Structure–Antioxidant Activity Relationship of Water–Based Enzymatic Polymerized Rutin and Its Wound Healing Potential
by Tanja Pivec, Rupert Kargl, Uroš Maver, Matej Bračič, Thomas Elschner, Ema Žagar, Lidija Gradišnik and Karin Stana Kleinschek
Polymers 2019, 11(10), 1566; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11101566 - 26 Sep 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5628
Abstract
The flavonoid rutin (RU) is a known antioxidant substance of plant origin. Its potential application in pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields is, however, limited, due to its low water solubility. This limitation can be overcome by polymerization of the phenolic RU into polyrutin (PR). [...] Read more.
The flavonoid rutin (RU) is a known antioxidant substance of plant origin. Its potential application in pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields is, however, limited, due to its low water solubility. This limitation can be overcome by polymerization of the phenolic RU into polyrutin (PR). In this work, an enzymatic polymerization of RU was performed in water, without the addition of organic solvents. Further, the chemical structure of PR was investigated using 1H NMR, and FTIR spectroscopy. Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) was used to determine the molecular weight of PR, while its acid/base character was studied by potentiometric charge titrations. Additionally, this work investigated the antioxidant and free radical scavenging potential of PR with respect to its chemical structure, based on its ability to (i) scavenge non biological stable free radicals (ABTS), (ii) scavenge biologically important oxidants, such as O2•, NO•, and OH•, and (iii) chelate Fe2+. The influence of PR on fibroblast and HaCaT cell viability was evaluated to confirm the applicability of water soluble PR for wound healing application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Synthesis of Polymers)
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Review

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27 pages, 1984 KiB  
Review
Antioxidant Activity of Synthetic Polymers of Phenolic Compounds
by Subhalakshmi Nagarajan, Ramaswamy Nagarajan, Jayant Kumar, Adele Salemme, Anna Rita Togna, Luciano Saso and Ferdinando Bruno
Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1646; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081646 - 24 Jul 2020
Cited by 82 | Viewed by 9115
Abstract
In recent years, developing potent antioxidants has been a very active area of research. In this context, phenolic compounds have been evaluated for their antioxidant activity. However, the use of phenolic compounds has also been limited by poor antioxidant activity in several in [...] Read more.
In recent years, developing potent antioxidants has been a very active area of research. In this context, phenolic compounds have been evaluated for their antioxidant activity. However, the use of phenolic compounds has also been limited by poor antioxidant activity in several in vivo studies. Polymeric phenols have received much attention owing to their potent antioxidant properties and increased stability in aqueous systems. To be truly effective in biological applications, it is important that these polymers be synthesized using benign methods. In this context, enzyme catalyzed synthesis of polymeric phenols has been explored as an environmentally friendly and safer approach. This review summarizes work in enzymatic syntheses of polymers of phenols. Several assays have been developed to determine the antioxidant potency of these polymeric phenols. These assays are discussed in detail along with structure-property relationships. A deeper understanding of factors affecting antioxidant activity would provide an opportunity for the design of versatile, high performing polymers with enhanced antioxidant activity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Synthesis of Polymers)
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11 pages, 1718 KiB  
Review
Poly (glycerol adipate) (PGA), an Enzymatically Synthesized Functionalizable Polyester and Versatile Drug Delivery Carrier: A Literature Update
by Sadie M.E. Swainson, Ioanna D. Styliari, Vincenzo Taresco and Martin C. Garnett
Polymers 2019, 11(10), 1561; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11101561 - 25 Sep 2019
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6031
Abstract
The enzymatically synthesized poly (glycerol adipate) (PGA) has demonstrated all the desirable key properties required from a performing biomaterial to be considered a versatile “polymeric-tool” in the broad field of drug delivery. The step-growth polymerization pathway catalyzed by lipase generates a highly functionalizable [...] Read more.
The enzymatically synthesized poly (glycerol adipate) (PGA) has demonstrated all the desirable key properties required from a performing biomaterial to be considered a versatile “polymeric-tool” in the broad field of drug delivery. The step-growth polymerization pathway catalyzed by lipase generates a highly functionalizable platform while avoiding tedious steps of protection and deprotection. Synthesis requires only minor purification steps and uses cheap and readily available reagents. The final polymeric material is biodegradable, biocompatible and intrinsically amphiphilic, with a good propensity to self-assemble into nanoparticles (NPs). The free hydroxyl group lends itself to a variety of chemical derivatizations via simple reaction pathways which alter its physico-chemical properties with a possibility to generate an endless number of possible active macromolecules. The present work aims to summarize the available literature about PGA synthesis, architecture alterations, chemical modifications and its application in drug and gene delivery as a versatile carrier. Following on from this, the evolution of the concept of enzymatically-degradable PGA-drug conjugation has been explored, reporting recent examples in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Synthesis of Polymers)
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