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Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their...
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Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 48439

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Keiko Shirai

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Guest Editor
Laboratory of Biopolymers and Pilot Plant of Bioprocessing of Agro-Industrial and Food By-Products, Biotechnology Department, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Distrito Federal, Mexico City, Mexico
Interests: biopolymers; bioprocess; biomanufacturing; biomaterials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Maribel Plascencia-Jatomea

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of Microbiology and Mycotoxins, Academy of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Department of Research and Postgraduate in Food Science, University of Sonora, Hermosillo, Mexico
Interests: bioactive compounds; biocomposites; functional polymers; toxicity
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Neith Aracely Pacheco López

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Center for Research and Assistance in Technology and Design of the State of Jalisco, AC. Southeast Unit, Zapopan 97302, Mexico
Interests: biopolymers; chitosan; bioactive compounds
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Chitin and chitosan are polymers with linear backbones composed of randomly distributed D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues. N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units are predominant in chitin, which can be deacetylated for chitosan production. Solutions, edible films, coatings, hydrogels, fibers, nanostructured and electrospun materials, as well as composites have been formulated with chitosan and chitin. These materials presented biodegradability, biocompatibility, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, as well as suitable mechanical and barrier properties. At present, the use of chitosan for the design of functional composites and biomaterials has increased for many applications such as a sorbent for the removal of organic and inorganic environmental pollutants in water, textile, paper and pulp, wound dressings, bio-based medicine with natural ingredients, drug and gene delivery systems, regenerative medicine, biopesticides, active coatings, sensors, food and beverage industries. Contributions to this Special Issue covering processing, modifications, applications of chitosan, chitin, composites and their derivatives are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Keiko Shirai
Prof. Dr. Maribel Plascencia-Jatomea
Prof. Dr. Neith Aracely Pacheco López
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • composites
  • water treatment
  • biomaterials
  • biopolymers
  • active coatings
  • drug delivery systems
  • microencapsulation

Published Papers (18 papers)

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18 pages, 2233 KiB  
Article
Relationship between the Antifungal Activity of Chitosan–Capsaicin Nanoparticles and the Oxidative Stress Response on Aspergillus parasiticus
by Cynthia Nazareth Hernández-Téllez, Ana Guadalupe Luque-Alcaraz, Sahily Alejandra Núñez-Mexía, Mario Onofre Cortez-Rocha, Jaime Lizardi-Mendoza, Ema Carina Rosas-Burgos, Aarón de Jesús Rosas-Durazo, Norma Violeta Parra-Vergara and Maribel Plascencia-Jatomea
Polymers 2022, 14(14), 2774; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142774 - 06 Jul 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1870
Abstract
The fungus Aspergillus parasiticus is a contaminant in agricultural crops and its eradication involves the indiscriminate use of harmful synthetic pesticides. In the search for antifungal agents of natural origin, chitosan (Q) and capsaicin (C) are coupled in the form of nanoparticles (Np), [...] Read more.
The fungus Aspergillus parasiticus is a contaminant in agricultural crops and its eradication involves the indiscriminate use of harmful synthetic pesticides. In the search for antifungal agents of natural origin, chitosan (Q) and capsaicin (C) are coupled in the form of nanoparticles (Np), which can possess a direct application under specific conditions. Due to their small size, Np can cross through the cell wall, taking the cells into a pro-oxidant environment known as “oxidative stress”, which presents when the reactive oxygen species (ROS) surpass the number of antioxidants in the cell. In the present investigation, nanoparticles of chitosan (Np Q) and nanoparticles of chitosan-capsaicin (Np QC) with an average diameter of 44.8 ± 20.6 nm and 111.1 ± 14.1 nm, respectively, were synthesized, and there was a zeta potential of + 25.6 ± 0.7 mV and + 26.8 ± 6.1 mV, respectively. The effect of the concentration of Np Q (A, B, C, and D), of Np QC (A, B, C, and D), and capsaicin in a solution (control) was evaluated on the viability of the spores, the accumulation of intracellular ROS, and the morphometric changes of A. parasiticus. Acute toxicity of the Np was determined utilizing bioassays with Artemia salina, and acute phytotoxicity was evaluated in lettuce seeds (Lactuca sativa). According to ROS results, capsaicin (control) did not induce oxidative stress in the cell; otherwise, it was observed to have an elevated (p < 0.05) accumulation of ROS when the concentration of Np Q increased. For both, Np Q and Np QC, an inverse physiological pattern relating spore viability and ROS accumulation in the fungus was found; the viability of spores decreased as the ROS accumulation increased. The spore viability of A. parasiticus diminished upon increasing the concentration of chitosan (0.3–0.4 mg/mL) in the Np, while the intracellular accumulation of ROS increased proportionally to the concentration of the nanomaterials in the treatments of Np Q and Np QC. On the other hand, Np QC presented a lower (p < 0.05) toxicological effect in comparison with Np Q, which indicates that the incorporation of bioactive compounds, such as capsaicin, into nanoparticles of chitosan is a strategy that permits the reduction of the toxicity associated with nanostructured materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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17 pages, 1702 KiB  
Article
Effect of Chitosan Incorporation on the Development of Acrylamide during Maillard Reaction in Fructose–Asparagine Model Solution and the Functional Characteristics of the Resultants
by Hong-Ting Victor Lin, Yen-Shu Ting, Nodali Ndraha, Hsin-I Hsiao and Wen-Chieh Sung
Polymers 2022, 14(8), 1565; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14081565 - 12 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1631
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of 0.5% chitosan incorporation on acrylamide development in a food model solution containing 0.5% fructose and asparagine after heating for 30 min at 180 °C. All the solutions were investigated for the following [...] Read more.
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of 0.5% chitosan incorporation on acrylamide development in a food model solution containing 0.5% fructose and asparagine after heating for 30 min at 180 °C. All the solutions were investigated for the following characteristics: acrylamide, asparagine, reducing sugar content, color, kinematic viscosity, Maillard reaction products (MRPs), and pH every 10 min. After heating for 10 min, the viscosity of chitosan-containing solutions reduced significantly. The investigational data confirmed that chitosan may have decomposed into lower molecular structures, as demonstrated by the reduced viscosity of the solution at pH < 6 and a decrease in the acrylamide content during 30 min of heating in a fructose–asparagine system. This study also confirms that the formation of ultraviolet-absorbing intermediates and browning intensity of MRPs containing acrylamide prepared by fructose–asparagine was more than those of MRPs prepared by glucose–asparagine solution system. MRPs containing acrylamide resulted from the reaction of asparagine with fructose (ketose) rather than glucose (aldose). Acrylamide formation could be significantly mitigated in the fructose–asparagine–chitosan model system as compared to the fructose–asparagine model system for possible beverage and food application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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21 pages, 3014 KiB  
Article
Physicochemical, Mechanical, and Structural Properties of Bio-Active Films Based on Biological-Chemical Chitosan, a Novel Ramon (Brosimum alicastrum) Starch, and Quercetin
by Soledad Cecilia Pech-Cohuo, Héctor Martín-López, Jorge Uribe-Calderón, Nancy Guadalupe González-Canché, Iván Salgado-Tránsito, Alejandro May-Pat, Juan Carlos Cuevas-Bernardino, Teresa Ayora-Talavera, José Manuel Cervantes-Uc and Neith Pacheco
Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1346; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071346 - 26 Mar 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3141
Abstract
The properties of biological-chemical chitosan (BCh) films from marine-industrial waste and a non-conventional Ramon starch (RS) (Brosimum alicastrum) were investigated. Blended films of BCh/RS were prepared to a volume ratio of 4:1 and 1:4, named (BChRS-80+q, biological-chemical chitosan 80% v/ [...] Read more.
The properties of biological-chemical chitosan (BCh) films from marine-industrial waste and a non-conventional Ramon starch (RS) (Brosimum alicastrum) were investigated. Blended films of BCh/RS were prepared to a volume ratio of 4:1 and 1:4, named (BChRS-80+q, biological-chemical chitosan 80% v/v and Ramon starch, BChRS-20+q, biological-chemical chitosan 20% v/v and Ramon starch, both with quercetin), Films from commercial chitosan (CCh) and corn starch (CS), alone or blended (CChCS-80+q, commercial chitosan 80% v/v and corn starch, CChCS-20+q commercial chitosan 20% v/v and corn starch, both with quercetin) were also prepared for comparison purposes. Films were investigated for their physicochemical characteristics such as thickness, moisture, swelling, water-vapor permeability, and water solubility. In addition, their mechanical and structural properties were studied using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) techniques. Antioxidant activity was evaluated as radical scavenging, and antimicrobial effect was also determined. The BCh and RS films presented similar tensile strength values compared with commercial biopolymers. Only films with chitosan presented antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. The FTIR spectra confirmed the interactions between functional groups of the biopolymers. Although, BChRS-80+q and BChRS-20+q films exhibited poor mechanical performance compared to their commercial counterparts, they showed good thermal stability, and improved antioxidant and antimicrobial activity in the presence of quercetin. BChRS-80+q and BChRS-20+q films have promising applications due to their biological activity and mechanical properties, based on a novel material that has been underutilized (Ramon starch) that does not compete with materials for human feeding and may be used as a coating for food products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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13 pages, 4209 KiB  
Article
Partially Deacetylated and Fibrillated Shrimp Waste-Derived Chitin as Biopolymer Emulsifier for Green Cutting Fluids—Towards a Cleaner Production
by Oscar Aguilar-Rosas, Stephany Blanco, Mariana Flores, Keiko Shirai and Leonardo Israel Farfan-Cabrera
Polymers 2022, 14(3), 525; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030525 - 28 Jan 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2461
Abstract
Up to date, most metalworking fluids (MWFs) are emulsions made of petroleum-derived oil bases and sodium petroleum sulphonate emulsifiers. They are not readily biodegradable, and their waste is hazardous for users and the environment. Therefore, green MWFs are required for achieving cleaner production [...] Read more.
Up to date, most metalworking fluids (MWFs) are emulsions made of petroleum-derived oil bases and sodium petroleum sulphonate emulsifiers. They are not readily biodegradable, and their waste is hazardous for users and the environment. Therefore, green MWFs are required for achieving cleaner production processes. Recently, various MWFs have been developed using vegetable oil bases to meet biodegradability to some extent. However, the emulsifier has been scarcely replaced by a green product. This research aims to produce and evaluate Pickering emulsions made of Jatropha oil (JO) and partially deacetylated and fibrillated chitin (PDFC) as emulsifiers at different concentrations. JO is a non-edible biodegradable oil with remarkable lubricity properties, while PDFC is produced by extracting chitin from waste heads and shells of the shrimp species Litopenaeus vannameii, followed by partial deacetylation and further fibrillation, which improves wettability and stabilization. The prepared emulsions were characterized in terms of creaming index and size of emulsion droplets and evaluated as MWFs in actual turning operations of AISI 1018 steel bars via minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) technique. The findings suggest PDFC as a potential eco-friendly emulsifier to form green MWFs with acceptable stability generating low cutting forces and significant workpiece finishing and chips quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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16 pages, 2795 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Design Approach for Modeling Bioprocesses from Laboratory toward Commercialization: Optimizing Chitosan Production
by Samir Meramo, Ángel Darío González-Delgado, Sumesh Sukumara, William Stive Fajardo and Jeffrey León-Pulido
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010025 - 22 Dec 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2923
Abstract
Enhancing the biochemical supply chain towards sustainable development requires more efforts to boost technology innovation at early design phases and avoid delays in industrial biotechnology growth. Such a transformation requires a comprehensive step-wise procedure to guide bioprocess development from laboratory protocols to commercialization. [...] Read more.
Enhancing the biochemical supply chain towards sustainable development requires more efforts to boost technology innovation at early design phases and avoid delays in industrial biotechnology growth. Such a transformation requires a comprehensive step-wise procedure to guide bioprocess development from laboratory protocols to commercialization. This study introduces a process design framework to guide research and development (R&D) through this journey, bearing in mind the particular challenges of bioprocess modeling. The method combines sustainability assessment and process optimization based on process efficiency indicators, technical indicators, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and process optimization via Water Regeneration Networks (WRN). Since many bioprocesses remain at low Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs), the process simulation module was examined in detail to account for uncertainties, providing strategies for successful guidance. The sustainability assessment was performed using the geometric mean-based sustainability footprint metric. A case study based on Chitosan production from shrimp exoskeletons was evaluated to demonstrate the method’s applicability and its advantages in product optimization. An optimized scenario was generated through a WRN to improve water management, then compared with the case study. The results confirm the existence of a possible configuration with better sustainability performance for the optimized case with a sustainability footprint of 0.33, compared with the performance of the base case (1.00). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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16 pages, 7141 KiB  
Article
Chitin Nerve Conduits with Three-Dimensional Spheroids of Mesenchymal Stem Cells from SD Rats Promote Peripheral Nerve Regeneration
by Ci Li, Meng Zhang, Song-Yang Liu, Feng-Shi Zhang, Teng Wan, Zhen-Tao Ding and Pei-Xun Zhang
Polymers 2021, 13(22), 3957; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13223957 - 16 Nov 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2181
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is an unresolved medical problem with limited therapeutic effects. Epineurium neurorrhaphy is an important method for treating PNI in clinical application, but it is accompanied by inevitable complications such as the misconnection of nerve fibers and neuroma formation. Conduits [...] Read more.
Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is an unresolved medical problem with limited therapeutic effects. Epineurium neurorrhaphy is an important method for treating PNI in clinical application, but it is accompanied by inevitable complications such as the misconnection of nerve fibers and neuroma formation. Conduits small gap tubulization has been proved to be an effective suture method to replace the epineurium neurorrhaphy. In this study, we demonstrated a method for constructing peripheral nerve conduits based on the principle of chitosan acetylation. In addition, the micromorphology, mechanical properties and biocompatibility of the chitin nerve conduits formed by chitosan acetylation were further tested. The results showed chitin was a high-quality biological material for constructing nerve conduits. Previous reports have demonstrated that mesenchymal stem cells culture as spheroids can improve the therapeutic potential. In the present study, we used a hanging drop protocol to prepare bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSCs) spheroids. Meanwhile, spherical stem cells could express higher stemness-related genes. In the PNI rat model with small gap tubulization, BMSCs spheres exhibited a higher ability to improve sciatic nerve regeneration than BMSCs suspension. Chitin nerve conduits with BMSCs spheroids provide a promising therapy option for peripheral nerve regeneration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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19 pages, 6151 KiB  
Article
Chitosan Functionalized with 2-Methylpyridine Cross-Linker Cellulose to Adsorb Pb(II) from Water
by Jorge Lozano-Montante, Raquel Garza-Hernández, Mario Sánchez, Edgar Moran-Palacio, Guillermo Niño-Medina, Mario Almada and Luis Hernández-García
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3166; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183166 - 18 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2039
Abstract
In this study, chitosan was chemically modified with 2-methylpyridine. Subsequently, the modified chitosan was cross-linked to cellulose using succinic anhydride. Additionally, the capacity of cellulose derivatives to adsorb Pb(II) ions in an aqueous solution was studied through the determination of Pb(II) ions concentration [...] Read more.
In this study, chitosan was chemically modified with 2-methylpyridine. Subsequently, the modified chitosan was cross-linked to cellulose using succinic anhydride. Additionally, the capacity of cellulose derivatives to adsorb Pb(II) ions in an aqueous solution was studied through the determination of Pb(II) ions concentration in water, using microwave plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (MP-AES). A maximum adsorption capacity of 6.62, 43.14, 60.6, and 80.26 mg/g was found for cellulose, cellulose-succinic acid, cellulose-chitosan, and cellulose-chitosan-pyridine, respectively. The kinetic data analysis of the adsorption process showed a pseudo-second-order behavior. The increase in metal removal from water is possibly due to metal chelation with the carbonyl group of succinic acid, and the pyridine groups incorporated into chitosan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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11 pages, 2577 KiB  
Article
Jawbones Scaffold Constructed by TGF-β1 and BMP-2 Loaded Chitosan Microsphere Combining with Alg/HA/ICol for Osteogenic-Induced Differentiation
by Yongxin Tan, Liqun Zhang, Muhammad Shahid Riaz Rajoka, Zhanhua Mai, Ali Bahadur, Hafiza Mahreen Mehwish, Muhammad Umair, Liqing Zhao, Yiguang Wu and Xun Song
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3079; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183079 - 13 Sep 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2051
Abstract
Bone scaffolds based on multi-components are the leading trend to address the multifaceted prerequisites to repair various bone defects. Chitosan is the most useable biopolymer, having excellent biological applications. Therefore, in the present study, the chitosan microsphere was prepared by the ion–gel method; [...] Read more.
Bone scaffolds based on multi-components are the leading trend to address the multifaceted prerequisites to repair various bone defects. Chitosan is the most useable biopolymer, having excellent biological applications. Therefore, in the present study, the chitosan microsphere was prepared by the ion–gel method; transforming growth factor β (TGF-β1) and bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) were loaded onto it and then combined with alginate/hyaluronic acid/collagen (Alg/HA/ICol) to construct a jawbones scaffold. The Alg/HA/ICol scaffolds were characterized by FTIR and SEM, and the water content, porosity, tensile properties, biocompatibility, and osteogenic-induced differentiation ability of the Alg/HA/ICol jawbones scaffolds were studied. The results indicate that a three-dimensional porous jawbone scaffold was successfully constructed having 100–250 μm of pore size and >90% of porosity without cytotoxicity against adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs). Its ALP quantification, osteocalcin expression, and Von Kossamineralized nodule staining was higher than the control group. The jawbones scaffold constructed by TGF-β1 and BMP-2 loaded chitosan microsphere combining with Alg/HA/ICol has potential biomedical application in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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14 pages, 3792 KiB  
Article
Destruction of Chitosan and Its Complexes with Cobalt(II) and Copper(II) Tetrasulphophthalocyanines
by Natalia Sh. Lebedeva, Elena S. Yurina, Sabir S. Guseinov, Yury A. Gubarev and Anatoly I. V’yugin
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2781; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162781 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1946
Abstract
Chitosan is a naturally occurring polysaccharide derived from chitin with a wide range of uses. Phthalocyanines are macroheterocyclic compounds that have a number of useful properties such as coloring and catalytic and antioxidant activity. Phthalocyanines are able to immobilize on chitosan, forming complexes [...] Read more.
Chitosan is a naturally occurring polysaccharide derived from chitin with a wide range of uses. Phthalocyanines are macroheterocyclic compounds that have a number of useful properties such as coloring and catalytic and antioxidant activity. Phthalocyanines are able to immobilize on chitosan, forming complexes with new useful properties. In this work, we evaluated the ability of phthalocyanines to increase the thermal stability of chitosan. Chitosan (CS) forms complexes with copper(II)-(CuPc) and cobalt(II)-(CoPc) tetrasulphophthalocyanines. The processes of destruction of chitosan (CS) and its complexes with sulphophthalocyanines CuPc and CoPc in oxidizing and inert atmospheres have been studied. It was established that, regardless of the atmosphere composition, the first chemical reactions taking place in the studied systems are elimination reactions. The latter ones in the case of chitosan and complex CS-CuPc lead to the formation of spatially crosslinked polymer structures, and it causes the release of CuPc from the polymer complex. It was found that in the case of CS-CoPc elimination reactions did not lead to the formation of crosslinked polymer structures but caused the destruction of the pyranose rings with a partial release of CoPc. Metallophthalocyanines showed antioxidant properties in the composition of complexes with chitosan, increasing the temperature of the beginning of glycosidic bond cleavage reaction by 30–35 °C in comparison with the similar characteristics for chitosan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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20 pages, 5991 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Performance of Chitosan via a Novel Quaternary Magnetic Nanocomposite Chitosan/Grafted Halloysitenanotubes@ZnγFe3O4 for Uptake of Cr (III), Fe (III), and Mn (II) from Wastewater
by Mahmoud F. Mubarak, Ahmed H. Ragab, Rasha Hosny, Inas A. Ahmed, Hanan A. Ahmed, Salah M. El-Bahy and Abeer El Shahawy
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2714; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162714 - 13 Aug 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 1953
Abstract
A novel chitosan/grafted halloysitenanotubes@Znγmagnetite quaternary nanocomposite (Ch/g-HNTs@ZnγM) was fabricated using the chemical co-precipitation method to remove the ions of Cr (III), Fe (III), and Mn (II) from wastewater. The characteristics of the synthesized Ch/g-HNTs@ZnγM quaternary nanocomposite were investigated using FTIR, SEM, XRD, GPC, [...] Read more.
A novel chitosan/grafted halloysitenanotubes@Znγmagnetite quaternary nanocomposite (Ch/g-HNTs@ZnγM) was fabricated using the chemical co-precipitation method to remove the ions of Cr (III), Fe (III), and Mn (II) from wastewater. The characteristics of the synthesized Ch/g-HNTs@ZnγM quaternary nanocomposite were investigated using FTIR, SEM, XRD, GPC, TGA, TEM, and surface zeta potential. The characterization analysis proved that the mentioned nanocomposite structure contains multiple functional groups with variable efficiencies. Additionally, they proved the existence of magnetic iron in the nanocomposite internal structure with the clarity of presentation of gaps and holes of high electron density on its surface. The results showed that the pH and time to reach an equilibrium system for all the studied metal ions were obtained at 9.0 and 60 min, respectively. The synthesized Ch/g-HNTs@ZnγM nanocomposite exhibited maximum adsorption removal of 95.2%, 99.06%, and 87.1% for Cr (III), Fe (III), and Mn (II) ions, respectively. The pseudo-second-order kinetic model and, for isotherm, the Langmuir model were best fitted with the experimental data. The thermodynamic parameters indicated the exothermic and spontaneous nature of the adsorption reaction as proven by the ΔH° and ΔG° values. Additionally, chemical adsorption by the coordination bond is supposed as the main mechanism of adsorption of the mentioned metal ions on the nanocomposite. Finally, Ch/g-HNTs@ZnγM displays prospected advantages, such as a low-expense adsorbent, high efficiency and availability, and an eco-friendly source, that will reduce the environmental load via an environmentally friendly method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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14 pages, 23191 KiB  
Article
Binary Graft of Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) and Poly(acrylic acid) onto Chitosan Hydrogels Using Ionizing Radiation for the Retention and Controlled Release of Therapeutic Compounds
by Alejandra Ortega, Abigail Sánchez and Guillermina Burillo
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2641; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162641 - 09 Aug 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2413
Abstract
In this study, we carried out the synthesis of a thermo- and pH-sensitive binary graft, based on N-vinylcaprolactam (NVCL) and pH sensitive acrylic acid (AAc) monomers, onto chitosan gels (net-CS) by ionizing radiation. Pre-oxidative irradiation and direct methods were examined, [...] Read more.
In this study, we carried out the synthesis of a thermo- and pH-sensitive binary graft, based on N-vinylcaprolactam (NVCL) and pH sensitive acrylic acid (AAc) monomers, onto chitosan gels (net-CS) by ionizing radiation. Pre-oxidative irradiation and direct methods were examined, and materials obtained were characterized by FTIR-ATR, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and swelling tests (equilibrium swelling time, critical pH, and temperature). The best synthesis radiation method was the direct method, which resulted in the maximum grafting percentages (~40%) at low doses (10–12 kGy). The main goal of this study was the comparison of the swelling behavior and physicochemical properties of net-CS with those of the binary system (net-CS)-g-NVCL/AAc with the optimum grafting percentage (~30%). This produced a material that showed an upper critical solution temperature (UCST) of 33.5 °C and a critical pH value of 3.8, indicating the system is more hydrophilic at higher temperatures and low pH values. Load and release studies were carried out using diclofenac. The grafted system (32%) was able to load 19.3 mg g−1 of diclofenac and release about 95% within 200 min, in comparison to net-CS, which only released 80% during the same period. When the grafted system was protonated before diclofenac loading, it loaded 27.6 mg g−1. However, the drug was strongly retained in the material by electrostatic interactions and only released about 20%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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16 pages, 8704 KiB  
Article
The Development and Characterization of a Cotton–Chitosan Composite for Lead Removal from Water
by Diana Alonso-Segura, Luis Hernández-García, Jorge Menchaca-Arredondo, Mario Sánchez, Belén Chamorro-Garza and Raquel Garza-Hernández
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2066; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13132066 - 23 Jun 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1996
Abstract
Heavy metals in water are a serious environmental problem due to their accumulation and toxicity; there are several processes we can use to address this issue, but adsorption is the most popular due to its simplicity and efficiency. Polysaccharides such as cellulose have [...] Read more.
Heavy metals in water are a serious environmental problem due to their accumulation and toxicity; there are several processes we can use to address this issue, but adsorption is the most popular due to its simplicity and efficiency. Polysaccharides such as cellulose have received attention as adsorbents for heavy metals, and cotton–chitosan composites (CCs) were developed here with nontoxic reagents such as carboxylic acids as crosslinkers and NaH2PO4 as a catalyst to achieve chitosan covalent crosslinkage into oxidized cotton textiles with H2O2. The composites were characterized by fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), elemental analysis (EA), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic-force and scanning electron microscopy (AFM and SEM), and tensile strength; the adsorption of lead ions (Pb) was evaluated with cotton–chitosan composites and quantified by microwave plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (MP-AES). The composites showed a maximum incorporation of chitosan of 27.62 mg per gram of cotton textile. A tensile strength analysis of the composite showed a Young’s modulus approximately 1 MPa higher than that of cotton textile. The adsorption of lead ions with composites in an aqueous solution at pH 5 and 25 °C was circa 74% after 6 h of contact, as determined by MP-AES. This work is an approach to demonstrate the potential of these polysaccharides, modified by “green” procedures to remove pollutants from water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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14 pages, 2512 KiB  
Article
Albendazole Release from Silica-Chitosan Nanospheres. In Vitro Study on Cervix Cancer Cell Lines
by Daniela J. Hernández-Castillo, Erick Natividad de la Cruz Hernández, Dora M. Frías Márquez, Richard D. Tilley, Lucy Gloag, Patricia Quintana Owen, Rosendo López González and Mayra A. Alvarez Lemus
Polymers 2021, 13(12), 1945; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13121945 - 11 Jun 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2898
Abstract
In this work, a pH-responsive drug-carrier based on chitosan-silica nanospheres was developed as a carrier for Albendazole (ABZ), a poorly water-soluble anthelmintic drug. Spherical silica nanoparticles were obtained by Stöber method and further etched to obtain mesoporous particles with sizes ranging from 350 [...] Read more.
In this work, a pH-responsive drug-carrier based on chitosan-silica nanospheres was developed as a carrier for Albendazole (ABZ), a poorly water-soluble anthelmintic drug. Spherical silica nanoparticles were obtained by Stöber method and further etched to obtain mesoporous particles with sizes ranging from 350 to 400 nm. The specific BET area of nanoparticles increased from 15 m2/g to 150 m2/g for etched silica, which also exhibited a uniform pore size distribution. X-ray powder diffraction showed the presence of amorphous phase of silica and a low-intensity peak attributed to ABZ for the drug-loaded nanoparticles. A uniform layer of chitosan was obtained ranging from 10 to 15 nm in thickness due to the small concentration of chitosan used (0.45 mg of chitosan/mg of SiO2). The in vitro evaluation of hybrid nanoparticles was performed using four cervical cancer cell lines CaSki, HeLa, SiHa and C33A, showing a significant reduction in cell proliferation (>85%) after 72 h. Therefore, we confirmed the encapsulation and bioavailability of the drug, which was released in a controlled way, and the presence of chitosan delayed the release, which could be of interest for the development of prolonged release drug delivery systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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13 pages, 2441 KiB  
Article
A Hybrid Methodology to Minimize Freshwater Consumption during Shrimp Shell Waste Valorization Combining Multi-Contaminant Pinch Analysis and Superstructure Optimization
by Viviana Quintero, Arturo Gonzalez-Quiroga and Angel Darío Gonzalez-Delgado
Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1887; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111887 - 06 Jun 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2071
Abstract
The conservation and proper management of natural resources constitute one of the main objectives of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development designed by the Member States of the United Nations. In this work, a hybrid strategy based on process integration is proposed to [...] Read more.
The conservation and proper management of natural resources constitute one of the main objectives of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development designed by the Member States of the United Nations. In this work, a hybrid strategy based on process integration is proposed to minimize freshwater consumption while reusing wastewater. As a novelty, the strategy included a heuristic approach for identifying the minimum consumption of freshwater with a preliminary design of the water network, considering the concept of reuse and multiple pollutants. Then, mathematical programming techniques were applied to evaluate the possibilities of regeneration of the source streams through the inclusion of intercept units and establish the optimal design of the network. This strategy was used in the shrimp shell waste process to obtain chitosan, where a minimum freshwater consumption of 277 t/h was identified, with a reuse strategy and an optimal value of US $5.5 million for the design of the water network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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15 pages, 3423 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Characterization of a Fe3O4@PNIPAM-Chitosan Nanocomposite and Its Potential Application in Vincristine Delivery
by Cynthia N. Hernández-Téllez, Ana G. Luque-Alcaraz, Maribel Plascencia-Jatomea, Hiram J. Higuera-Valenzuela, Mabeth Burgos-Hernández, Nadia García-Flores, Mario E. Álvarez-Ramos, Jorge L. Iriqui-Razcon, Reynaldo Esquivel Gonzalez and Pedro A. Hernández-Abril
Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1704; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111704 - 23 May 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2581
Abstract
In this research, we conducted a systematic evaluation of the synthesis parameters of a multi-responsive core-shell nanocomposite (Fe3O4 nanoparticles coated by poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) in the presence of chitosan (CS) (Fe3O4@PNIPAM-CS). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used [...] Read more.
In this research, we conducted a systematic evaluation of the synthesis parameters of a multi-responsive core-shell nanocomposite (Fe3O4 nanoparticles coated by poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) in the presence of chitosan (CS) (Fe3O4@PNIPAM-CS). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to follow the size and morphology of the nanocomposite. The functionalization and the coating of Fe3O4 nanoparticles (Nps) were evaluated by the ζ-potential evolution and Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The nanocomposite exhibited a collapsed structure when the temperature was driven above the lower critical solution temperature (LCST), determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS). The LCST was successfully shifted from 33 to 39 °C, which opens the possibility of using it in physiological systems. A magnetometry test was performed to confirm the superparamagnetic behavior at room temperature. The obtained systems allow the possibility to control specific properties, such as particle size and morphology. Finally, we performed vincristine sulfate loading and release tests. Mathematical analysis reveals a two-stage structural-relaxation release model beyond the LCST. In contrast, a temperature of 25 °C promotes the diffusional release model. As a result, a more in-depth comprehension of the release kinetics was achieved. The synthesis and study of a magnetic core-shell nanoplatform offer a smart material as an alternative targeted release therapy due to its thermomagnetic properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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24 pages, 4875 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Epigallocatechin-Gallate-Grafted Chitosan Nanoparticles and Evaluation of Their Antibacterial and Antioxidant Potential
by María J. Moreno-Vásquez, Maribel Plascencia-Jatomea, Saúl Sánchez-Valdes, Judith C. Tanori-Córdova, Francisco J. Castillo-Yañez, Idania E. Quintero-Reyes and Abril Z. Graciano-Verdugo
Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1375; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091375 - 23 Apr 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3282
Abstract
Nanoparticles based on chitosan modified with epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) were synthetized by nanoprecipitation (EGCG-g-chitosan-P). Chitosan was modified by free-radical-induced grafting, which was verified by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). Furthermore, the morphology, particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of the nanoparticles were investigated. [...] Read more.
Nanoparticles based on chitosan modified with epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) were synthetized by nanoprecipitation (EGCG-g-chitosan-P). Chitosan was modified by free-radical-induced grafting, which was verified by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). Furthermore, the morphology, particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of the nanoparticles were investigated. The grafting degree of EGCG, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, antibacterial and antioxidant activities of EGCG-g-chitosan-P were evaluated and compared with those of pure EGCG and chitosan nanoparticles (Chitosan-P). FTIR results confirmed the modification of the chitosan with EGCG. The EGCG-g-chitosan-P showed spherical shapes and smoother surfaces than those of Chitosan-P. EGCG content of the grafted chitosan nanoparticles was 330 μg/g. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of EGCG-g-chitosan-P (15.6 μg/mL) was lower than Chitosan-P (31.2 μg/mL) and EGCG (500 μg/mL) against Pseudomonas fluorescens (p < 0.05). Additionally, EGCG-g-chitosan-P and Chitosan-P presented higher Staphylococcus aureus growth inhibition (100%) than EGCG at the lowest concentration tested. The nanoparticles produced an increase of ROS (p < 0.05) in both bacterial species assayed. Furthermore, EGCG-g-chitosan-P exhibited higher antioxidant activity than that of Chitosan-P (p < 0.05) in 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) and ferric-reducing antioxidant power assays. Based on the above results, EGCG-g-chitosan-P shows the potential for food packaging and biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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26 pages, 3951 KiB  
Review
Recent Advances in Chitin and Chitosan/Graphene-Based Bio-Nanocomposites for Energetic Applications
by Rabia Ikram, Badrul Mohamed Jan, Muhammad Abdul Qadir, Akhmal Sidek, Minas M. Stylianakis and George Kenanakis
Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3266; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193266 - 25 Sep 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5999
Abstract
Herein, we report recent developments in order to explore chitin and chitosan derivatives for energy-related applications. This review summarizes an introduction to common polysaccharides such as cellulose, chitin or chitosan, and their connection with carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), such as bio-nanocomposites. Furthermore, we present [...] Read more.
Herein, we report recent developments in order to explore chitin and chitosan derivatives for energy-related applications. This review summarizes an introduction to common polysaccharides such as cellulose, chitin or chitosan, and their connection with carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), such as bio-nanocomposites. Furthermore, we present their structural analysis followed by the fabrication of graphene-based nanocomposites. In addition, we demonstrate the role of these chitin- and chitosan-derived nanocomposites for energetic applications, including biosensors, batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors and solar cell systems. Finally, current limitations and future application perspectives are entailed as well. This study establishes the impact of chitin- and chitosan-generated nanomaterials for potential, unexplored industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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18 pages, 351 KiB  
Review
Oligosaccharins as Elicitors of Defense Responses in Wheat
by Laura Celina Ochoa-Meza, Eber Addí Quintana-Obregón, Irasema Vargas-Arispuro, Alejandro Bernardo Falcón-Rodríguez, Emmanuel Aispuro-Hernández, José J. Virgen-Ortiz and Miguel Ángel Martínez-Téllez
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3105; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183105 - 15 Sep 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3594
Abstract
Wheat is a highly relevant crop worldwide, and like other massive crops, it is susceptible to foliar diseases, which can cause devastating losses. The current strategies to counteract wheat diseases include global monitoring of pathogens, developing resistant genetic varieties, and agrochemical applications upon [...] Read more.
Wheat is a highly relevant crop worldwide, and like other massive crops, it is susceptible to foliar diseases, which can cause devastating losses. The current strategies to counteract wheat diseases include global monitoring of pathogens, developing resistant genetic varieties, and agrochemical applications upon diseases’ appearance. However, the suitability of these strategies is far from permanent, so other alternatives based on the stimulation of the plants’ systemic responses are being explored. Plants’ defense mechanisms can be elicited in response to the perception of molecules mimicking the signals triggered upon the attack of phytopathogens, such as the release of plant and fungal cell wall-derived oligomers, including pectin and chitin derivatives, respectively. Among the most studied cell wall-derived bioelicitors, oligogalacturonides and oligochitosans have received considerable attention in recent years due to their ability to trigger defense responses and enhance the synthesis of antipathogenic compounds in plants. Particularly, in wheat, the application of bioelicitors induces lignification and accumulation of polyphenolic compounds and increases the gene expression of pathogenesis-related proteins, which together reduce the severity of fungal infections. Therefore, exploring the use of cell wall-derived elicitors, known as oligosaccharins, stands as an attractive option for the management of crop diseases by improving plant readiness for responding promptly to potential infections. This review explores the potential of plant- and fungal-derived oligosaccharins as a practical means to be implemented in wheat crops. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Preparation and Application of Chitosan, Chitin and Their Composites)
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