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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Smart and Functional Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 September 2024 | Viewed by 14074

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Xufeng Dong

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Guest Editor

School of Materials Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
Interests: smart polymers; nanocomposites; biomedical polymers; hydrogels; polymer-based composites; elastomers; nanoenergy; tissue engineering; viscoelasticity; rheology; magnetorheological; electrorheological; carbon nanotube fibers; artificial muscles
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Prof. Dr. Jianxun Ding

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Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 5625 Renmin Street, Changchun 130022, China
Interests: polymer chemistry; self-assembly; nanoparticle; hydrogel; scaffold; biomaterial; controlled drug delivery; immunotherapy; regenerative medicine
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Yingdan Liu

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Guest Editor

State Key Lab of Metastable Materials and Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
Interests: electrorheological fluids; electoactive elastomer; hydrogel; ionogel; flexible sensor; flexible actuator

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The intersection between materials science and bioscience is an interesting and intersecting topic. On the one hand, we can prepare smart materials, such as shape-memory materials, magnetostrictive materials, electrochromic materials, etc., to imitate the intelligence of life. Among these materials, smart polymers have become one of the most promising due to their diversity and flexibility in mechanical properties. On the other hand, these materials can be applied to repair human tissues or aid in the diagnosis and treatment of human health. Furthermore, polymers present in the human body include proteins, DNA, hair, etc. Therefore, biomedical polymers, such as biodegradable polymers, bioactive polymers, medical hydrogels, etc., have become exceeding promising biomedical materials. In the past few decades, the fields of smart polymers and biomedical polymers have developed rapidly, showing a trend of cross-fusion.

Recognizing the importance of smart polymers and biomedical polymers, this Special Issue of Polymers invites contributions addressing several aspects of smart polymers and composites, such as shape-memory polymers, magnetorheological elastomers, electrorheological elastomers, dielectric elastomers, artificial muscles, 4D printing technology, etc., and topics related to biomedical polymers and composites, such as hydrogels, tissue engineering polymers, bioactive polymers and composites, degradable polymers, etc. The above list is by no means exhaustive; any original theoretical, experimental or application work, or review article on smart polymers and biomedical polymers is welcome.

Prof. Dr. Xufeng Dong
Prof. Dr. Jianxun Ding
Prof. Dr. Yingdan Liu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

smart polymers and composites
shape-memory polymers
piezoelectric polymers
magnetorheological elastomers
electrorheological elastomers
dielectric elastomers
magnetostrictive composites
artificial muscles
triboelectric nanogenerator
4D printing
biomedical polymers and composites
hydrogels
ionogels
tissue engineering
bioactive polymers and composites
degradable polymers and composites

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 2602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Approach for the Synthesis of Responsive Core–Shell Nanogels with a Poly(N-Isopropylacrylamide) Core and a Controlled Polyamine Shell

by Anna Harsányi, Attila Kardos, Pinchu Xavier, Richard A. Campbell and Imre Varga

Polymers 2024, 16(18), 2584; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16182584 - 13 Sep 2024

Viewed by 232

Abstract

Microgel particles can play a key role, e.g., in drug delivery systems, tissue engineering, advanced (bio)sensors or (bio)catalysis. Amine-functionalized microgels are particularly interesting in many applications since they can provide pH responsiveness, chemical functionalities for, e.g., bioconjugation, unique binding characteristics for pollutants and interactions with cell surfaces. Since the incorporation of amine functionalities in controlled amounts with predefined architectures is still a challenge, here, we present a novel method for the synthesis of responsive core–shell nanogels (d_h < 100 nm) with a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAm) core and a polyamine shell. To achieve this goal, a surface-functionalized pNIPAm nanogel was first prepared in a semi-batch precipitation polymerization reaction. Surface functionalization was achieved by adding acrylic acid to the reaction mixture in the final stage of the precipitation polymerization. Under these conditions, the carboxyl functionalities were confined to the outer shell of the nanogel particles, preserving the core’s temperature-responsive behavior and providing reactive functionalities on the nanogel surface. The polyamine shell was prepared by the chemical coupling of polyethyleneimine to the nanogel’s carboxyl functionalities using a water-soluble carbodiimide (EDC) to facilitate the coupling reaction. The efficiency of the coupling was assessed by varying the EDC concentration and reaction temperature. The molecular weight of PEI was also varied in a wide range (M_w = 0.6 to 750 kDa), and we found that it had a profound effect on how many polyamine repeat units could be immobilized in the nanogel shell. The swelling and the electrophoretic mobility of the prepared core–shell nanogels were also studied as a function of pH and temperature, demonstrating the successful formation of the polyamine shell on the nanogel core and its effect on the nanogel characteristics. This study provides a general framework for the controlled synthesis of core–shell nanogels with tunable surface properties, which can be applied in many potential applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Bio-Medical Polymers)

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12 pages, 3435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Composite Mineralized Collagen/Polycaprolactone Scaffold-Loaded Microsphere System with Dual Osteogenesis and Antibacterial Functions

by Yuzhu He, Qindong Wang, Yuqi Liu, Zijiao Zhang, Zheng Cao, Shuo Wang, Xiaoxia Ying, Guowu Ma, Xiumei Wang and Huiying Liu

Polymers 2024, 16(17), 2394; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16172394 - 23 Aug 2024

Viewed by 359

Abstract

Biomaterials play an important role in treating bone defects. The functional characteristics of scaffolds, such as their structure, mechanical strength, and antibacterial and osteogenesis activities, effectively promote bone regeneration. In this study, mineralized collagen and polycaprolactone were used to prepare loaded porous scaffolds with bilayer-structured microspheres with dual antibacterial and osteogenesis functions. The different drug release mechanisms of PLGA and chitosan in PLGA/CS microspheres caused differences in the drug release models in terms of the duration and rate of Pac-525 and BMP-2 release. The prepared PLGA_(BMP-2)/CS_(Pac-525)@MC/PCL scaffolds were analyzed in terms of physical characteristics, bioactivity, and antibacterial properties. The scaffolds with a dimensional porous structure showed similar porosity and pore diameter to cancellous bone. The release curve of the microspheres and scaffolds with high encapsulation rates displayed the two-stage release of Pac-525 and BMP-2 over 30 days. It was found that the scaffolds could inhibit S. aureus and E. coli and then promote ALP activity. The PLGA_(BMP-2)/CS_(Pac-525)@MC/PCL scaffold could be used as a dual delivery system to promote bone regeneration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Bio-Medical Polymers)

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14 pages, 5972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Injectable Carrageenan/Green Graphene Oxide Hydrogel: A Comprehensive Analysis of Mechanical, Rheological, and Biocompatibility Properties

by Danny Moncada, Rebeca Bouza, Maite Rico, Saddys Rodríguez-Llamazares, Natalia Pettinelli, Alana Aragón-Herrera, Sandra Feijóo-Bandín, Oreste Gualillo, Francisca Lago, Yousof Farrag and Horacio Salavagione

Polymers 2024, 16(16), 2345; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16162345 - 19 Aug 2024

Viewed by 661

Abstract

In this work, physically crosslinked injectable hydrogels based on carrageenan, locust bean gum, and gelatin, and mechanically nano-reinforced with green graphene oxide (GO), were developed to address the challenge of finding materials with a good balance between injectability and mechanical properties. The effect of GO content on the rheological and mechanical properties, injectability, swelling behavior, and biocompatibility of the nanocomposite hydrogels was studied. The hydrogels’ morphology, assessed by FE-SEM, showed a homogeneous porous architecture separated by thin walls for all the GO loadings investigated. The rheology measurements evidence that G′ > G″ over the whole frequency range, indicating the dominant elastic nature of the hydrogels and the difference between G′ over G″ depends on the GO content. The GO incorporation into the biopolymer network enhanced the mechanical properties (ca. 20%) without appreciable change in the injectability of the nanocomposite hydrogels, demonstrating the success of the approach described in this work. In addition, the injectable hydrogels with GO loadings ≤0.05% w/v exhibit negligible toxicity for 3T3-L1 fibroblasts. However, it is noted that loadings over 0.25% w/v may affect the cell proliferation rate. Therefore, the nano-reinforced injectable hybrid hydrogels reported here, developed with a fully sustainable approach, have a promising future as potential materials for use in tissue repair. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Bio-Medical Polymers)

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17 pages, 3358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Tensile Modulus of Polyurethane-Based Shape Memory Polymers for Wound Closure Applications through the Addition of Palm Oil

by Sirasit Kampangsat, Todsapol Kajornprai, Warakarn Tangjatuporn, Nitinat Suppakarn and Tatiya Trongsatitkul

Polymers 2024, 16(13), 1941; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16131941 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1095

Abstract

Thermo-responsive, biocompatible polyurethane (PU) with shape memory properties is highly desirable for biomedical applications. An innovative approach to producing wound closure strips using shape memory polymers (SMPs) is of significant interest. In this work, PU composed of polycaprolactone (PCL) and 1,4-butanediol (BDO) was synthesized using two-step polymerization. Palm oil (PO) was added to PU for enhancing the Young’s modulus of the PU beyond the set criterion of 130 MPa. It was found that PU had the ability to crystallize at room temperature and the segments of individual PCL and BDO polyurethanes crystallized separately. The crystalline domains and hard segment of PU greatly affected the tensile properties. The reduction of crystalline domains by the addition of PO and deformation at the higher melting temperature of the crystalline PCL polyurethane phase improved the shape fixity and shape recovery ratios. The new irreversible phase, raised from the permanent deformation upon stretching at the between melting temperature of the crystalline PCL and BDO polyurethanes of 70 °C, resulted in a decrease in shape fixity ratio after the first thermomechanical stretching–recovering cycles. The demonstration of PU as a wound closure strip showed its efficiency and potential until the surgical wound healed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Bio-Medical Polymers)

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14 pages, 2912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cremophor RH40, Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose, and Mixing Speed on Physicochemical Properties of Films Containing Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Loaded with Furosemide Using the Box–Behnken Design

by Pakorn Kraisit, Namon Hirun, Premjit Limpamanoch, Yongthida Sawaengsuk, Narumol Janchoochai, Ornpreeya Manasaksirikul and Sontaya Limmatvapirat

Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1605; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111605 - 5 Jun 2024

Viewed by 750

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the characteristics of H-K4M hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) films containing nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with furosemide. A hot homogenization technique and an ultrasonic probe were used to prepare and reduce the size of the NLCs. Films were made using the casting technique. This study used a Box–Behnken design to evaluate the influence of three key independent variables, specifically H-K4M concentration (X₁), surfactant Cremophor RH40 concentration (X₂), and mixing speed (X₃), on the physicochemical properties of furosemide-loaded NLCs and films. The furosemide-loaded NLCs had a particle size ranging from 54.67 to 99.13 nm, and a polydispersity index (PDI) ranging from 0.246 to 0.670. All formulations exhibited a negative zeta potential, ranging from −7.05 to −5.61 mV. The prepared films had thicknesses and weights ranging from 0.1240 to 0.2034 mm and 0.0283 to 0.0450 g, respectively. The drug content was over 85%. Film surface wettability was assessed based on the contact angle, ranging from 32.27 to 68.94°. Film tensile strength varied from 1.38 to 7.77 MPa, and their elongation at break varied from 124.19 to 170.72%. The ATR-FTIR analysis confirmed the complete incorporation of the drug in the film matrix. Therefore, the appropriate selection of values for key parameters in the synthesis of HPMC films containing drug-loaded NLCs is important in the effective development of films for medical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Bio-Medical Polymers)

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12 pages, 3125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mussel-Inspired Calcium Alginate/Polyacrylamide Dual Network Hydrogel: A Physical Barrier to Prevent Postoperative Re-Adhesion

by Zekun Su, Beibei Xue, Chang Xu and Xufeng Dong

Polymers 2023, 15(23), 4498; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15234498 - 23 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1286

Abstract

Intrauterine adhesions (IUA) has become one of the main causes of female infertility. How to effectively prevent postoperative re-adhesion has become a clinical challenge. In this study, a mussel-inspired dual-network hydrogel was proposed for the postoperative anti-adhesion of IUA. First, a calcium alginate/polyacrylamide (CA-PAM) hydrogel was prepared via covalent and Ca²⁺ cross-linking. Benefiting from abundant phenolic hydroxyl groups, polydopamine (PDA) was introduced to further enhance the adhesion ability and biocompatibility. This CA-PAM hydrogel immersed in 10 mg/mL dopamine solution possessed remarkable mechanical strength (elastic modulus > 5 kPa) and super stretchability (with a breaking elongation of 720%). At the same time, it showed excellent adhesion (more than 6 kPa). Surprisingly, the coagulation index of the hydrogel was 27.27 ± 4.91, demonstrating attractive coagulation performance in vitro and the potential for rapid hemostasis after surgery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Bio-Medical Polymers)

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10 pages, 6863 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Aware Artificial Coiled Yarn Muscles with Enhanced Electrical Conductivity and Durability via a Two-Step Process

by Yongqi Gong, Wanyi Chen, Jianyang Li, Shun Zhao, Luquan Ren, Kunyang Wang and Bingqian Li

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030552 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1601

Abstract

Muscles are capable of modulating the body and adapting to environmental changes with a highly integrated sensing and actuation. Inspired by biological muscles, coiled/twisted fibers are adopted that can convert volume expansion into axial contraction and offer the advantages of flexibility and light weight. However, the sensing-actuation integrated fish line/yarn-based artificial muscles are still barely reported due to the poor actuation-sensing interface with off-the-shelf fibers. We report herein artificial coiled yarn muscles with self-sensing and actuation functions using the commercially available yarns. Via a two-step process, the artificial coiled yarn muscles are proved to obtain enhanced electrical conductivity and durability, which facilitates the long-term application in human-robot interfaces. The resistivity is successfully reduced from 172.39 Ω·cm (first step) to 1.27 Ω·cm (second step). The multimode sense of stretch strain, pressure, and actuation-sensing are analyzed and proved to have good linearity, stability and durability. The muscles could achieve a sensitivity (gauge factor, GF) of the contraction strain perception up to 1.5. We further demonstrate this self-aware artificial coiled yarn muscles could empower non-active objects with actuation and real-time monitoring capabilities without causing damage to the objects. Overall, this work provides a facile and versatile tool in improving the actuation-sensing performances of the artificial coiled yarn muscles and has the potential in building smart and interactive soft actuation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Bio-Medical Polymers)

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Review

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25 pages, 2318 KiB

Open AccessReview

PEEK for Oral Applications: Recent Advances in Mechanical and Adhesive Properties

by Chengfeng Luo, Ying Liu, Bo Peng, Menghao Chen, Zhaogang Liu, Zhanglong Li, Hai Kuang, Baijuan Gong, Zhimin Li and Hongchen Sun

Polymers 2023, 15(2), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020386 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7308

Abstract

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is a thermoplastic material widely used in engineering applications due to its good biomechanical properties and high temperature stability. Compared to traditional metal and ceramic dental materials, PEEK dental implants exhibit less stress shielding, thus better matching the mechanical properties of bone. As a promising medical material, PEEK can be used as implant abutments, removable and fixed prostheses, and maxillofacial prostheses. It can be blended with materials such as fibers and ceramics to improve its mechanical strength for better clinical dental applications. Compared to conventional pressed and CAD/CAM milling fabrication, 3D-printed PEEK exhibits excellent flexural and tensile strength and parameters such as printing temperature and speed can affect its mechanical properties. However, the bioinert nature of PEEK can make adhesive bonding difficult. The bond strength can be improved by roughening or introducing functional groups on the PEEK surface by sandblasting, acid etching, plasma treatment, laser treatment, and adhesive systems. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the research progress on the mechanical properties of PEEK for dental applications in the context of specific applications, composites, and their preparation processes. In addition, the research on the adhesive properties of PEEK over the past few years is highlighted. Thus, this review aims to build a conceptual and practical toolkit for the study of the mechanical and adhesive properties of PEEK materials. More importantly, it provides a rationale and a general new basis for the application of PEEK in the dental field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Bio-Medical Polymers)

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