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Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2025 | Viewed by 9952

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Wang Guo

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Guest Editor

Guangxi Key Laboratory of Manufacturing System and Advanced Manufacturing Technology, School of Mechanical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
Interests: polymer scaffolds; additive manufacturing; tissue engineering; biomaterials; nanocomposites; functional materials; biological properties; mechanical properties; degradation properties; drug release
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Prof. Dr. Hui You

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Guangxi Key Laboratory of Manufacturing System and Advanced Manufacturing Technology, School of Mechanical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
Interests: microfluidic and biochips; MEMS (microelectro-mechanical systems); microsensors; micro-nano machining; precision manufacturing; biological manufacturing; biomedical instruments; environmental monitorin
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Dr. Pei Feng

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State Key Laboratory of Precision Manufacturing for Extreme Service Performance, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
Interests: 3D/4D printing; biofabrication; shape memory; bone scaffold; biomaterials; function materials; polymers; nanocomposites
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Prof. Dr. Yu Long

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School of Mechanical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
Interests: intelligent manufacturing; additive manufacturing; 3D/4D printing; laser manufacturing; biomanufacturing; flexible electronics; bionic robot; intelligent monitoring and control
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I am honored to accept the invitation of the Polymers Editorial Office to act as a Guest Editor for a new Special Issue, "Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume".

Polymers and their composites have become the most widely used biomaterials in the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine due to their biocompatibility, adjustable physical, chemical, and biological properties, good processing performance, etc. Their uses include tissue engineering scaffolds, wound dressings, vascular stents, nerve guidance conduits, drug release carriers, etc. Their material forms include scaffolds, hydrogels, fibers, microspheres, etc. The preparation technology involved in their production includes traditional preparation process and additive manufacturing technology or their combination.

This Special Issue aims to highlight research progress on polymers and their composites, especially in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, including but not limited to the following aspects: material and structure design, functionalization, preparation, characterization, performance evaluation, and biomedical application.

We sincerely invite you to submit your paper to this Special Issue and are looking forward to sharing your outstanding work with peers around the world.

Dr. Wang Guo
Prof. Dr. Hui You
Dr. Pei Feng
Prof. Dr. Yu Long
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

polymer-based biomaterials
tissue engineering
additive manufacturing
3D Printing
4D Printing
bioprinting
cell printing
organ and organoid printing
biomimetic materials and structures

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 4120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Influence of Antisolvent 3D Printing Conditions on the Mechanical and Biological Properties of Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) Acid Scaffolds

by Anton V. Mironov, Ekaterina M. Trifanova, Tatyana B. Bukharova, Andrey V. Vasilyev, Viktoria O. Chernomyrdina, Irina A. Nedorubova, Valeriya S. Kuznetsova, Andrey G. Dunaev, Vladimir K. Popov, Anatoly A. Kulakov, Fedor F. Losev and Dmitry V. Goldshtein

Polymers 2025, 17(4), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17040501 - 14 Feb 2025

Viewed by 547

Abstract

This paper describes an evaluation of the mechanical and biological properties of highly porous, biocompatible poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) scaffolds produced using the antisolvent 3D printing technique under various forming conditions. The dependence of the scaffolds’ microstructure, PLGA molecular weight distribution, and cell adhesion properties on temperature and injection nozzle diameter was evaluated. All samples consisted of fibers with different inner polymer distributions formed by specific radial, highly porous structures with a mean pore length of less than 50 μm and a diameter below 10 μm. The microstructure formed using a nozzle with a diameter of 160 μm showed a moderate correlation with printing temperature, while for the 330 μm nozzle, there was no significant difference in microstructures formed at different temperatures. Scaffolds produced at lower temperatures of 4 °C with a thin nozzle showed better compression load characteristics in terms of strength. In contrast, a larger nozzle allowed the production of a PLGA structure with improved elasticity. A 10–17% change in the molecular weight of PLGA was observed during printing, but no influence on biological properties was found. All types of PLGA scaffolds tested demonstrated good biocompatibility and promoted cell adhesion compared to the control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)

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14 pages, 9305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nitrogen-Doped Diamond-like Coatings for Long-Term Enhanced Cell Adhesion on Electrospun Poly(ε-caprolactone) Scaffold Surfaces

by Semen Goreninskii, Yuri Yuriev, Artem Runts, Elisaveta Prosetskaya, Evgeniy Melnik, Tuan-Hoang Tran, Elizaveta Sviridova, Alexey Golovkin, Alexander Mishanin and Evgeny Bolbasov

Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3524; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243524 - 18 Dec 2024

Viewed by 741

Abstract

Electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL)-based scaffolds are widely used in tissue engineering. However, low cell adhesion remains the key drawback of PCL scaffolds. It is well known that nitrogen-doped diamond-like carbon (N-DLC) coatings deposited on the surface of various implants are able to enhance their biocompatibility and functional properties. Herein, we report the utilization of the pulsed vacuum arc deposition (PVAD) technique for the fabrication of thin N-DLC coatings on the surface of electrospun PCL scaffolds. The effect of N-DLC coating deposition under various nitrogen pressures on the morphological, mechanical, physico-chemical, and biological properties of PCL scaffolds was investigated. It was established that an increase in nitrogen pressure in the range from 5 × 10⁻³ to 5 × 10⁻¹ Pa results in up to a 10-fold increase in the nitrogen content and a 2-fold increase in the roughness of the PCL fiber surface. These factors provided the conditions for the enhanced adhesion and proliferation of human mesenchymal stem cells (MMSCs) on the surface of the modified PCL scaffolds. Importantly, the preservation of N-DLC coating properties determines the shelf life of a coated medical device. The elemental composition, tensile strength, and surface human MMSC adhesion were studied immediately after fabrication and after 6 months of storage under normal conditions. The enhanced MMSC adhesion was preserved after 6 months of storage of the modified PCL-based scaffolds under normal conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)

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32 pages, 18436 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Evaluation of the Effect of Degradation on the Mechanical Behavior and Morphometric Characteristics of Functionally Graded Polymer Scaffolds

by Nataliya Elenskaya, Ilia Vindokurov, Evgeniy Sadyrin, Andrey Nikolaev and Mikhail Tashkinov

Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3474; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243474 - 12 Dec 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1255

Abstract

Bone transplantation ranks second worldwide among tissue prosthesis surgeries. Currently, one of the most promising approaches is regenerative medicine, which involves tissue engineering based on polymer scaffolds with biodegradable properties. Once implanted, scaffolds interact directly with the surrounding tissues and in a fairly aggressive environment, which causes biodegradation of the scaffold material. The aim of this work is to experimentally investigate the changes in the effective mechanical properties of polylactide scaffolds manufactured using additive technologies. The mechanism and the rate of the degradation process depend on the chosen material, contact area, microstructural features, and overall architecture of sample. To assess the influence of each of these factors, solid samples with different dimensions and layers orientation as well as prototypes of functionally graded scaffolds were studied. The research methodology includes the assessment of changes in the mechanical properties of the samples, as well as their structural characteristics. Changes in the mechanical properties were measured in compression tests. Microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) studies were conducted to evaluate changes in the microstructure of scaffold prototypes. Changes caused by surface erosion and their impact on degradation were assessed using morphometric analysis. Nonlinear changes in mechanical properties were observed for both solid samples and lattice graded scaffold prototypes depending on the duration of immersion in NaCl solution and exposure to different temperatures. At the temperature of 37 °C, the decrease in the elastic modulus of solid specimens was no more than 16%, while for the lattice scaffolds, it was only 4%. For expedited degradation during a higher temperature of 45 °C, these ratios were 47% and 16%, respectively. The decrease in compressive strength was no more than 32% for solid specimens and 17% for scaffolds. The results of this study may be useful for the development of optimal scaffolds considering the impact of the degradation process on their structural integrity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)

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15 pages, 6581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Properties of PCL@45s5 Composite Biomaterial Scaffolds Based on Additive Manufacturing

by Chen Zhang, Yixian Ru, Jinchao You, Runyi Lin, Shihao Chen, Yi Qi, Dejing Li, Cheng Zhang and Zhenli Qiu

Polymers 2024, 16(23), 3379; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16233379 - 30 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 977

Abstract

This study focuses on the development of polymer–bioglass composite bone scaffolds for the treatment of bone defects. PCL particles and 45s5 bioglass powder were employed as raw materials to fabricate PCL/45s5 composite wires with mass fractions of 5 wt%, 10 wt%, and 20 wt% via the twin-screw extrusion method. A cylindrical porous model was established using 3D modeling software, and a porous composite scaffold was constructed through the melt deposition manufacturing process. The macroscopical characterization of composite stock and composite powder was analyzed. The melt flow rate, water contact angle, elastic modulus, in vitro degradation rate, and antibacterial property of composite scaffold were measured. The experimental results showed that the incorporation of 45s5 bioglass into PCL material gave the composite better antibacterial properties, effectively reduced the flow rate of the material, increased the hydrophobicity of the material, and improved the rigidity and biocompatibility of the PCL material. This study offers initial insights into the use of synthetic bone tissue engineering scaffolds for clinical bone repair treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)

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20 pages, 6523 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Polymer Film to Develop Heart Valve Prostheses

by Irina Yu. Zhuravleva, Anna A. Dokuchaeva, Andrey A. Vaver, Ludmila V. Kreiker, Alexandra B. Mochalova, Elena V. Chepeleva, Maria A. Surovtseva, Aleksei N. Kolodin, Elena V. Kuznetsova and Rostislav I. Grek

Polymers 2024, 16(23), 3373; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16233373 - 29 Nov 2024

Viewed by 955

Abstract

Polymer heart valves are a promising alternative to bioprostheses, the use of which is limited by the risks of calcific deterioration of devitalized preserved animal tissues. This is especially relevant in connection with the increasingly widespread use of transcatheter valves. Advances in modern organic chemistry provide a wide range of polymers that can replace biological material in the production of valve prostheses. In this work, the main properties of REPEREN^® polymer film, synthesized from methacrylic oligomers reinforced with ultra-thin (50 µm) polyamide fibers, are studied. The film structure was studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The hydrophilicity and cytocompatibility with EA.hy926 endothelial cells were assessed, and a hemocompatibility evaluation was carried out by studying the platelet aggregation and adhesion upon contact of the REPEREN^® with blood. The mechanical behavior and biocompatibility (subcutaneous implantation in rats for up to 90 days, followed by a histological examination) were studied in comparison with a bovine pericardium (BP) cross-linked with an ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (DE). The results showed that REPEREN^® films have two surfaces with a different relief, smooth and rough. The rough surface is more hydrophilic, hemo- and cytocompatible. Compared with the DE-BP, REPEREN^® has a higher ultimate tensile stress and better biocompatibility when implanted subcutaneously in rats. The key properties of REPEREN^® showed its potential for the development of a polymeric heart valve. Further studies should be devoted to assessing the durability of REPEREN^® valves and evaluating their function during orthotopic implantation in large animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)

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15 pages, 12494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of High-Aspect-Ratio Soft Magnetic Microarrays for Magneto-Mechanical Actuation via Field-Induced Injection Molding

by Da Seul Shin, Jin Wook Park, Chang Woo Gal, Jina Kim, Woo Seok Yang, Seon Yeong Yang, Min Jik Kim, Ho Jae Kwak, Sang Min Park and Jong Hyun Kim

Polymers 2024, 16(21), 3003; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16213003 - 25 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1068

Abstract

Magnetorheological elastomers (MREs) are in demand in the field of high-tech microindustries and nanoindustries such as biomedical applications and soft robotics due to their exquisite magneto-sensitive response. Among various MRE applications, programmable actuators are emerging as promising soft robots because of their combined advantages of excellent flexibility and precise controllability in a magnetic system. Here, we present the development of magnetically programmable soft magnetic microarray actuators through field-induced injection molding using MREs, which consist of styrene-ethylene/butylene styrene (SEBS) elastomer and carbonyl iron powder (CIP). The ratio of the CIP/SEBS matrix was designed to maximize the CIP fraction based on a critical solids loading. Further, as part of the design of the magnetization distribution in micropillar arrays, the magnetorheological response of the molten composites was analyzed using the static and dynamic viscosity results for both the on and off magnetic states, which reflected the particle dipole interaction and subsequent particle alignment during the field-induced injection molding process. To develop a high-aspect-ratio soft magnetic microarray, X-ray lithography was applied to prepare the sacrificial molds with a height-to-width ratio of 10. The alignment of the CIP was designed to achieve a parallel magnetic direction along the micropillar columns, and consequently, the micropillar arrays successfully achieved the uniform and large bending actuation of up to approximately 81° with an applied magnetic field. This study suggests that the injection molding process offers a promising manufacturing approach to build a programmable soft magnetic microarray actuator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)

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20 pages, 6241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Synthesis of Poly(1,4-butanediol itaconate) via Box–Behnken Design Optimization

by Magdalena Miętus, Mateusz Cegłowski, Tomasz Gołofit and Agnieszka Gadomska-Gajadhur

Polymers 2024, 16(19), 2708; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16192708 - 25 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1236

Abstract

At present, there are too few organ and tissue donors. Due to the needs of the medical market, scientists are seeking new solutions. Those can be found in tissue engineering by synthesizing synthetic cell scaffolds. We have decided to synthesize a potential UV-crosslinked bio-ink for 3D printing, poly(1,4-butanediol itaconate), in response to emerging needs. Diol polyesters are commonly investigated for their use in tissue engineering. However, itaconic acid makes it possible to post-modify the obtained polymer via UV-crosslinking. This work aims to optimize the synthesis of poly(1,4-butanediol itaconate) in the presence of a catalyst, zinc acetate, without using any toxic reactant. The experiments used itaconic acid and 1,4-butanediol using the Box–Behnken mathematical planning method. The input variables were the amount of the catalyst used, as well as the time and temperature of the synthesis. The optimized output variables were the percentage conversion of carboxyl groups, the percentage of unreacted C=C bonds, and the product’s visual and viscosity analysis. The significance of the varying synthesis parameters was determined in each statistical model. The optimum conditions were as follows: amount of catalyst 0.3%_nCOOH, reaction time 4 h, and temperature 150 °C. The temperature had the most significant impact on the product characteristics, mainly due to side reactions. Experimentally developed models of the polymerization process enable the effective synthesis of a polymer “tailor-made” for a specific application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)

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26 pages, 12676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Recovery of Complete Spinal Cord Transection by a Plasma-Modified Fibrillar Scaffold

by Diana Osorio-Londoño, Yessica Heras-Romero, Luis B. Tovar-y-Romo, Roberto Olayo-González and Axayácatl Morales-Guadarrama

Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081133 - 18 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1871

Abstract

Complete spinal cord injury causes an irreversible disruption in the central nervous system, leading to motor, sensory, and autonomic function loss, and a secondary injury that constitutes a physical barrier preventing tissue repair. Tissue engineering scaffolds are presented as a permissive platform for cell migration and the reconnection of spared tissue. Iodine-doped plasma pyrrole polymer (pPPy-I), a neuroprotective material, was applied to polylactic acid (PLA) fibers and implanted in a rat complete spinal cord transection injury model to evaluate whether the resulting composite implants provided structural and functional recovery, using magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, diffusion tensor imaging and tractography, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, locomotion analysis, histology, and immunofluorescence. In vivo, MR studies evidenced a tissue response to the implant, demonstrating that the fibrillar composite scaffold moderated the structural effects of secondary damage by providing mechanical stability to the lesion core, tissue reconstruction, and significant motor recovery. Histologic analyses demonstrated that the composite scaffold provided a permissive environment for cell attachment and neural tissue guidance over the fibers, reducing cyst formation. These results supply evidence that pPPy-I enhanced the properties of PLA fibrillar scaffolds as a promising treatment for spinal cord injury recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)

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