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Processing and Application of Bio-Based Polymeric Compounds

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Circular and Green Polymer Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 October 2023) | Viewed by 15326

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Faissal Aziz

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Water, Biodiversity & Climate Change, Faculty of Science Semlalia-Marrakech/Faculty Polydisciplinary of Safi, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakesh, Morocco
Interests: water engineering; catalysis; chemical kinetics; environmental chemistry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Mounir El Achaby

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Guest Editor

Materials Science, Energy and Nanoegenering Department, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, BenGuerir, Morocco
Interests: lignocellulosic biomass; cellulose derivatives; biopolymers; bio-nanocomposites; nanomaterials engineering; multifunctional application of bio-based polymers

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Bio-based polymer compounds are partially or totally bio-based polymers. They are obtained from biomass, renewable resources representing all the organic matter produced by Nature and living organisms (plant, animal, and microorganism origin).

Biobased building blocks or biomacromolecules are chemically modified and/or polymerized. The end-product “biocomposites” are obtained following a phase of formulation and implementation. For this purpose, many processing techniques may be applied (extrusion, molding, calendaring, casting, reinforcing, thermoforming, etc.) to adopt their uses for various long-term applications.

This approach is associated with the development of innovative biosourced macromolecular architectures with new functionalities for advanced applications. It is a global valorization approach, and involves the recovery of different biomasses that are part of greener chemistry for doubly sustainable materials, environmental preservation and a favorable bioeconomy. These architectures make it possible in certain cases to develop flexible materials with an improved lifespan and recyclability while providing specific usage functions.

This Special Issue aims to showcase the progress, opportunities, and challenges in processing techniques of bio-based polymeric compounds and their applications.

Prof. Dr. Faissal Aziz
Dr. Mounir El Achaby
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

bio-based polymers
biocomposites
processing techniques
applications of biopolymers

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 4510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation, Characterization, Dielectric Properties, and AC Conductivity of Chitosan Stabilized Metallic Oxides CoO and SrO: Experiments and Tight Binding Calculations

by Azza Abou Elfadl, Ali H. Bashal, Talaat H. Habeeb, Mohammed A. H. Khalafalla, Nazeeha S. Alkayal and Khaled D. Khalil

Polymers 2023, 15(20), 4132; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15204132 - 18 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 936

Abstract

Polymeric films made from chitosan (CS) doped with metal oxide (MO = cobalt (II) oxide and strontium oxide) nanoparticles at different concentrations (5, 10, 15, and 20% wt. MO/CS) were fabricated with the solution cast method. FTIR, SEM, and XRD spectra were used to study the structural features of those nanocomposite films. The FTIR spectra of chitosan showed the main characteristic peaks that are usually present, but they were shifted considerably by the chemical interaction with metal oxides. FTIR analysis of the hybrid chitosan-CoO nanocomposite exhibited notable peaks at 558 and 681 cm⁻¹. Conversely, the FTIR analysis of the chitosan-SrO composite displayed peaks at 733.23 cm⁻¹, 810.10 cm⁻¹, and 856.39 cm⁻¹, which can be attributed to the bending vibrations of Co-O and Sr-O bonds, respectively. In addition, the SEM graphs showed a noticeable morphological change on the surface of chitosan, which may be due to surface adsorption with metal oxide nanoparticles. The XRD pattern also revealed a clear change in the crystallinity of chitosan when it is in contact with metal oxide nanoparticles. The presence of characteristic signals for cobalt (Co) and strontium (Sr) are clearly shown in the EDX examinations, providing convincing evidence for their incorporation into the chitosan matrix. Moreover, the stability of the nanoparticle-chitosan coordinated bonding was verified from the accurate and broadly parametrized semi-empirical tight-binding quantum chemistry calculation. This leads to the determination of the structures’ chemical hardness as estimated from the frontier’s orbital calculations. We characterized the dielectric properties in terms of the real and imaginary dielectric permittivity as a function of frequency. Dielectric findings reveal the existence of extensive interactions of CoO and SrO, more pronounced for SrO, with the functional groups of CS through coordination bonding. This induces the charge transfer of the complexes between CoO and SrO and the CS chains and a decrease in the amount of the crystalline phase, as verified from the XRD patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Application of Bio-Based Polymeric Compounds)

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16 pages, 6291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toughening Polylactide Stereocomplex by Injection Molding with Thermoplastic Starch and Chain Extender

by Yottha Srithep, Dutchanee Pholharn, Patnarin Worajittiphon, Keartisak Sriprateep, Onpreeya Veang-in and John Morris

Polymers 2023, 15(9), 2055; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092055 - 26 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1225

Abstract

The high cost, low heat resistance, and brittleness of poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) is a significant drawback that inhibits its diffusion into many industrial applications. These weaknesses were solved by forming a polylactide stereocomplex (ST) and blending it with thermoplastic starch (TPS). We blended poly (L-lactide)(PLLA), up to 30% thermoplastic starch, and a chain extender (2%) in an internal mixer, which was then hand-mixed with poly (D-lactide)(PDLA) and injection molded to form specimens, in order to study mechanical, thermal, and crystallization behavior. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and wide-angle X-ray diffraction (XRD) demonstrated that the stereocomplex structures were still formed despite the added TPS and showed melting points ~55 °C higher than neat PLLA. Furthermore, stereocomplex crystallinity decreased with the increased TPS content. Dynamic mechanical analysis revealed that ST improved PLLA heat resistance, and tensile testing suggested that the TPS improved the elongation-at-break of ST. Moreover, the chain extender reduced the degradation of ST/TPS blends and generally improved ST/TPS composites’ mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Application of Bio-Based Polymeric Compounds)

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21 pages, 4985 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of Bio-Based Thermoset Mixture Composed of Methacrylated Rapeseed Oil and Methacrylated Methyl Lactate: One-Pot Synthesis Using Formed Methacrylic Acid as a Continual Reactant

by Vojtěch Jašek, Jan Fučík, Veronika Melcova, Silvestr Figalla, Ludmila Mravcova, Štěpán Krobot and Radek Přikryl

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1811; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081811 - 7 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1578

Abstract

Methacrylated vegetable oils are promising bio-based polymerizable precursors for potential material application in several fields, such as coating technologies or 3D printing. The reactants’ availability for their production is an enormous advantage, but the modified oils also exhibit high apparent viscosity values and poor mechanical properties. This work focuses on a way to produce oil-based polymerizable material precursors in a mixture with a viscosity modifier in a one-batch process. The required methacrylic acid for the modification of epoxidized vegetable oils can be obtained as a secondary product of the methacrylation of methyl lactate forming a polymerizable monomer along with the acid. This reaction results in a yield of over 98% of methacrylic acid. Epoxidized vegetable oil can be added into the same batch using acid for oil modification which results in the one-pot mixture of both methacrylated oil and methyl lactate. The structural verifications of products were provided via FT-IR, ¹H NMR, and volumetric methods. This two-step reaction process produces a thermoset mixture with a lower apparent viscosity of 142.6 mPa·s in comparison with methacrylated oil exhibiting a value of 1790.2 mPa·s. Other physical-chemical properties of the resin mixture such as storage modulus (E′ = 1260 MPa), glass transition temperature (T_g = 50.0 °C), or polymerization activation energy (17.3 kJ/mol) are enhanced in comparison with the methacrylated vegetable oil. The synthesized one-pot mixture does not require additional methacrylic acid due to the use of the one formed in the first step of the reaction, while the eventual thermoset mixture exhibits enhanced material properties compared to the methacrylated vegetable oil itself. Precursors synthesized in this work may find their purpose in the field of coating technologies, since these applications require detailed viscosity modifications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Application of Bio-Based Polymeric Compounds)

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15 pages, 3902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antifungal Activity of Water-Based Adhesives Derived from Pineapple Stem Flour with Apple Cider Vinegar as an Additive

by Kamonlak Ninsuwan, Jaturavit Nimnuan, Jidapa Watcharakitti, Chomsri Siriwong, Taweechai Amornsakchai and Siwaporn Meejoo Smith

Polymers 2023, 15(7), 1735; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15071735 - 31 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2418

Abstract

As a byproduct of bromelain extraction procedures, pineapple stem flour is underutilized. Since water glues derived from gelatinization typically have poor mold resistance, this study aims to produce flour-based value-added products, such as mold-resistant water-based adhesives. To address this issue, this study explored the use of apple cider vinegar (ACV) as a low-cost, non-toxic, commercially available antifungal agent to improve the mold resistance of adhesives. Furthermore, laurate flour was produced via a transesterification of the flour and methyl laurate using a K₂CO₃ catalyst. Both the unmodified flour and the functionalized flour were employed to prepare water-based adhesives. For both flour systems, adding ACV at concentrations of at least 2.0% v/v enhanced the mold resistance of the adhesives and completely inhibited the development of A. niger mycelia for up to 90 days of storage. The adhesives made from the transesterified flour exhibited a higher shear strength for the paper bonding (ca. 8%) than the unmodified ones. Additionally, the ACV additive had no negative effects on the shear strengths of the water-based adhesives. All of the flour-based adhesives developed in this study had a higher shear strength for paper substrates than two locally available commercial water glues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Application of Bio-Based Polymeric Compounds)

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12 pages, 2613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Mucilage Extracted from Corchorus olitorius Leaves on Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)-Stabilized Oil-in-Water Emulsions

by Do-Yeong Kim and Hyunsu Kim

Polymers 2023, 15(1), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15010113 - 27 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2611

Abstract

The present study examined the effect of mucilage extracted from Corchorus olitorius L. leaves on the emulsifying stability of bovine serum albumin (BSA)-stabilized oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions during the storage for seven days. O/W emulsions were prepared with a 90% aqueous phase containing C. olitorius mucilage (0–1.00% w/v) together with 0.5% (w/v) BSA and 10% oil phase. Emulsion properties were analyzed by measuring droplet size, zeta potential, spectroturbidity, backscattering profiles (%BS), and visual observations. The mean droplet size of emulsions prepared with 0.75 and 1.00% mucilage did not show significant changes during storage. The zeta potential of all the emulsions exhibited a negative charge of approximately −40 mV, but electrical repulsion was not the dominant stabilization mechanism in the emulsion. C. olitorius mucilage was able to increase the viscosity of the aqueous phase of the O/W emulsion system, which prevented droplet flocculation and enhanced the emulsion stability against phase separation at higher concentrations. The most stable emulsions during the storage period were those with 1.00% C. olitorius mucilage. In conclusion, C. olitorius mucilage has good potential for the preparation of stable O/W emulsions and can be used as a plant-based natural emulsifying and thickening agent in the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Application of Bio-Based Polymeric Compounds)

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13 pages, 2419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Styrene-Free Bio-Based Thermosetting Resins with Tunable Properties Starting from Vegetable Oils and Terpenes

by Fabio Bertini, Adriano Vignali, Marcello Marelli, Nicoletta Ravasio and Federica Zaccheria

Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4185; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194185 - 5 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1684

Abstract

The substitution of fossil-based monomers in the thermosetting formulations is a fundamental issue to face the environmental concerns related to the use of traditional resins. In this paper, styrene-free thermosetting resins were prepared to start from vegetable oils with different compositions and unsaturation degrees, namely soybean, hempseed, and linseed oils. Using terpenic comonomers such as limonene and β-myrcene allows one to prepare thermosets avoiding the traditional fossil-based diluents such as styrene, thus obtaining an outstanding gain in terms of both environmental and safety concerns. Furthermore, the materials obtained reveal tunable physical properties upon the proper choice of the monomers, with glass transition temperature ranging from 40 to 80 °C and Young’s modulus ranging from 200 to 1800 MPa. The possibility of preparing composite materials starting from the resins prepared in this way and natural fibres has also been explored due to the potential applications of bio-based composites in several industrial sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Application of Bio-Based Polymeric Compounds)

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Review

Jump to: Research

49 pages, 15897 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogels as Promising Biomaterials

by Achraf Berradi, Faissal Aziz, Mounir El Achaby, Naaila Ouazzani and Laila Mandi

Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2908; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132908 - 30 Jun 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4017

Abstract

Polysaccharides have emerged as a promising material for hydrogel preparation due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low cost. This review focuses on polysaccharide-based hydrogels’ synthesis, characterization, and applications. The various synthetic methods used to prepare polysaccharide-based hydrogels are discussed. The characterization techniques are also highlighted to evaluate the physical and chemical properties of polysaccharide-based hydrogels. Finally, the applications of SAPs in various fields are discussed, along with their potential benefits and limitations. Due to environmental concerns, this review shows a growing interest in developing bio-sourced hydrogels made from natural materials such as polysaccharides. SAPs have many beneficial properties, including good mechanical and morphological properties, thermal stability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, abundance, economic viability, and good swelling ability. However, some challenges remain to be overcome, such as limiting the formulation complexity of some SAPs and establishing a general protocol for calculating their water absorption and retention capacity. Furthermore, the development of SAPs requires a multidisciplinary approach and research should focus on improving their synthesis, modification, and characterization as well as exploring their potential applications. Biocompatibility, biodegradation, and the regulatory approval pathway of SAPs should be carefully evaluated to ensure their safety and efficacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Application of Bio-Based Polymeric Compounds)

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