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Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Phytochemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2025 | Viewed by 6400

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Luis Cartuche

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Departamento de Química, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL), Loja 1101608, Ecuador
Interests: essential oils; plant extracts; GC-MS; LC-MS; natural products; marine actinomycetes; enzyme inhibitors; antimicrobials; antioxidants; nutraceutics

Dr. Vladimir Morocho

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Guest Editor

Departamento de Química, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL), Loja 1101608, Ecuador
Interests: essential oils; plant extracts; GC-MS; LC-MS; secondary metabolites; ecological role of volatile compounds; botanic plant distribution; taxonomy

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Chemical characterization strategies for essential oils from plants, and their analysis through several in vitro or in vivo biological assays represent a burgeoning field with wide-ranging implications across various sectors. Essential oils, composed of a myriad of volatile compounds derived mainly from mixtures of terpenes (mono- and sesquiterpenes essentially), offer diverse biological activities that make them valuable in numerous applications. In nature, essential oils serve a crucial function in plant protection, although their precise mechanisms of action remain elusive. It is also well known that their chemical composition can exhibit significant variation, even within the same plant species or among different plants. This variation stems from factors such as genetic diversity, geographical location, environmental conditions, nutritional status, the specific plant parts used (such as stems, leaves or flowers) and the extraction methods employed. From antimicrobial and antioxidant properties to their potential in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and agriculture, essential oils hold promises for innovative solutions. Furthermore, advancements in analytical techniques have enabled a deeper understanding of essential oil composition and their effects on biological systems. As we continue to uncover new compounds and assess their activities, the potential applications of essential oils are ever-expanding.

This Special Issue endeavors to gather insights into these plant derivatives and welcomes submissions of original research, mini and full reviews, short communications and perspectives covering various aspects of essential oils from plants. Submissions may include, but are not limited to, topics such as the biosynthesis of essential oils in plants, the role of essential oils within the plant, their mechanisms of action, the chemical composition of essential oils and their biological activities both in vitro and in vivo.

Dr. Luis Cartuche
Dr. Vladimir Morocho
Guest Editors

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Keywords

essential oils
chemical characterization
enantiomeric distribution
terpenoids
gas chromatography
ecological role of essential oils
chemical variability
biological activities in vitro and in vivo
antimicrobials
anti-infectious
antioxidant
enzyme inhibitors

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 2100 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Chemical Variability and Antimicrobial, Anti-Proliferative Potential of Essential Oils from Baccharis uncinella, B. retusa, and B. calvescens (Asteraceae)

by Tânia F. Dlugoviet, Aurea P. Ferriani, Ana Paula P. Klein Hendges, Rebeca G. Camargo, Marta C. T. Duarte, Renata M. T. Duarte, Ana Lúcia Tasca Gois Ruiz, Noemi Nagata, Francisco A. Marques and Beatriz H. L. N. Sales Maia

Plants 2025, 14(9), 1311; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14091311 - 26 Apr 2025

Viewed by 334

Abstract

Essential oils (EOs) of three native species Baccharis uncinella, B. retusa and B. calvescens, obtained through hydrodistillation, were analyzed by GC-MS and GC-FID for seasonality, and the antimicrobial and anti-proliferative activities were evaluated. EO of B. calvescens and B. uncinella consisted mainly of oxygenated sesquiterpenes, while in the EO of B. retusa, monoterpene hydrocarbons were predominant. The highest antimicrobial activity was observed for spring B. uncinella EO against S. aureus, C. albicans and summer B. uncinella EO against C. albicans and B. subtilis. Essential oils of B. calvescens showed more effective anti-proliferative activity than B. retusa EO and B. uncinella EO. This is the first study of the EO of B. retusa, and it was demonstrated that the majority composition was different in all seasons of the year, justifying the importance of the seasonal study. Furthermore, the summer and spring EO showed potent cytostatic effects against the K562 and OVCAR-03 cell lines, respectively. For each species, PCA differentiated the EO chemical composition seasonally. PCA of all samples distinguished the three species. This study underscores the importance of assessing seasonal variation in the chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils, highlighting the potential of compounds spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide, limonene and α-pinene for achieving the desired product properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils)

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17 pages, 1345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Essential Oil from the Roots of Valeriana rigida Ruiz & Pav. Growing in the Paramos of Chimborazo (Ecuador): Chemical Analysis, Enantioselective Profile, and Preliminary Biological Activity

by Linda M. Flores, Diego R. Vinueza, Gianluca Gilardoni, Antonio J. Mota and Omar Malagón

Plants 2025, 14(7), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14071062 - 29 Mar 2025

Viewed by 651

Abstract

The essential oil (EO) obtained from the roots of Valeriana rigida Ruiz & Pav. (Caprifoliaceae), collected in the moorland region of Chimborazo Province, Ecuador, was analyzed for the first time. The chemical profile was qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed using GC-MS and GC-FID, respectively. With both detectors, two stationary phases of different polarities were used. A total of 56 compounds were identified, and the most abundant components (>3% on at least one column) were a mixture of cyclosativene and α-ylangene (4.5–4.4%), α-copaene (9.0–8.8%), decanoic acid (16.0–15.6%), β-chamigrene (3.2–3.1%), δ-cadinene (9.7–9.5%), dodecanoic acid (13.4–12.3%), and 7-epi-α-eudesmol (5.0–4.9%), on a non-polar and polar stationary phase, respectively. Additionally, the enantioselective analysis showed (1S,5S)-(+)-α-pinene, (1R,4S)-(–)-camphene, (1S,5S)-(−)-β-pinene, and (1R,2S,6S,7S,8S)-(–)-α-copaene as enantiomerically pure compounds, whereas germacrene D exhibited both enantiomeric forms. The anti-inflammatory activity of V. rigida EO was comparable to that of aspirin, as indicated by the IC50 values, with no significant differences observed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils)

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18 pages, 3777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Bauhinia bowkeri Extracts on Hypercholesterolemia: Insights from In Vitro and In Silico Investigations

by Siphelele T. Thethwayo, Evelyn Madoroba, Sphamandla Masikane, Andrew R. Opoku and Nkosinathi D. Cele

Plants 2025, 14(6), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14060979 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 365

Abstract

Despite the many current cholesterol-lowering drugs on the market, the persistent surge of hypercholesterolemic-related complications ignites a fascinating search for the discovery of novel therapeutics. This study aimed at investigating the anti-hypercholesterolemic effect of Bauhinia bowkeri extracts. The plant material was sequentially extracted with n-hexane, dichloromethane (DCM), and 70% ethanol. The phytochemical constituents of the extracts were analyzed through GC-MS and the antioxidant activity of the extracts was screened against a wide range of free radicals (ABTS, DPPH, hydroxyl radical, and nitric oxide). The extracts were also screened for the metal iron chelating and reducing power potential. The enzyme inhibitory activity of the extracts on pancreatic lipase, cholesterol esterase, and HMG-CoA reductase as well as the bile acid binding capacity were evaluated. Among the total of 122 compounds detected in the three extracts, only 7 compounds (E-15-Heptadecenal, Diethyl Phthalate, 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid ethyl ester, (Z,Z) Tetradecane 5-methyl, and Octadecane 5-methyl) were found to be common in all the extracts. The extract displayed a varying degree of efficiency on free radicals with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.07 mg/mL to 0.41 mg/mL. A concentration-dependent inhibition of pancreatic lipase and cholesterol esterase activities, along with a reduction in the bile-binding capacity exhibited by the extracts, was noted. In silico investigations of some of the phytoconstituent revealed significant inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, cyclooxygenase, and hormone-sensitive lipase with a binding affinity that ranged between −5.1 and −7.0 kcal/mol. These findings suggest that Bauhinia bowkeri extracts possess potential antioxidant and anti-hypercholesterolemic properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils)

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15 pages, 488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical and Biological Study of the Essential Oil Isolated from Fruits of Citrus x limonia

by Eduardo Valarezo, Jailene Paucar-Costa, Belén Morales-Guamán, Alfredo Caraguay-Martínez, Ximena Jaramillo-Fierro, Nixon Cumbicus and Miguel Angel Meneses

Plants 2025, 14(5), 705; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050705 - 25 Feb 2025

Viewed by 573

Abstract

Citrus x limonia is an aromatic species, known locally in Ecuador as limón mandarina or limón chino. In the present study, the chemical composition and biological activity of the essential oil isolated from this species were determined. The essential oil was extracted through hydrodistillation. The chemical composition and enantiomeric distribution of the essential oil were determined by gas chromatography. Antimicrobial activity was determined using the broth microdilution method against tree Gram-positive cocci, a Gram-positive bacillus, four Gram-negative bacilli, a fungus, and a yeast. The antioxidant activity was determined through ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) and DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) methods. The spectrophotometric method was used to determine anticholinesterase activity. In the essential oil, thirty-nine compounds were identified, which represented 99.35% of the total composition. Monoterpene hydrocarbons were the most representative group in terms of number of compounds (thirteen) and in terms of relative abundance (91.39%). The main constituents were found to be limonene (57.38 ± 1.09%), γ-terpinene (13.01 ± 0.37%), and β-pinene (12.04 ± 0.63%). Five pairs of enantiomers were identified in the essential oil from fruits of Citrus x limonia. The essential oil presented a minimum inhibitory concentration of 4000 μg/mL against Aspergillus niger. The antioxidant activity of essential oil was weak per the ABTS method, with a SC₅₀ of 1.26 mg/mL. Additionally, the essential oil exhibited moderate anticholinesterase activity, with an IC₅₀ of 203.9 ± 1.03 µg/mL. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the chemical composition and biological activities of the essential oil from fruits of Citrus x limonia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils)

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19 pages, 2923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gynoxys hallii Hieron., Gynoxys calyculisolvens Hieron., and Gynoxys azuayensis Cuatrec. Essential Oils—Chemical and Enantioselective Analyses of Three Unprecedented Volatile Fractions from the Ecuadorian Biodiversity

by Yessenia E. Maldonado, María del Carmen Rodríguez, María Emilia Bustamante, Stefanny Cuenca, Omar Malagón, Nixon Cumbicus and Gianluca Gilardoni

Plants 2025, 14(5), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050659 - 21 Feb 2025

Viewed by 560

Abstract

The present study is the first report on the chemical and enantiomeric compositions of essential oils from the Ecuadorian species Gynoxys hallii Hieron., Gynoxys calyculisolvens Hieron., and Gynoxys azuayensis Cuatrec. All the volatile fractions presented a sesquiterpene-based chemical profile, typical of other volatile fractions from this genus. Both qualitative (GC-MS) and quantitative (GC-FID) chemical analyses were carried out on two stationary phases of different polarity (non-polar and polar). The main constituents of G. hallii essential oil on the two columns, respectively, were α-pinene (33.6–31.5%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.2–6.4%), germacrene D (35.7–38.3%), and bicyclogermacrene (3.8–4.0%). In G. calyculisolvens, the major compounds were α-pinene (11.2–11.0%), p-cymene (4.0–3.7%), α-copaene (3.6–3.7%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.1–8.3%), germacrene D (20.8–22.0%), and germacrene D-4-ol (8.4–8.6%). Finally, the main components of G. azuayensis were α-pinene (4.5–4.1%), germacrene D (14.1–12.4%), bicyclogermacrene (2.6–3.0%), tridecanal (6.4–6.2%), and spathulenol (7.8–7.1%). Furthermore, enantioselective analyses were conducted on the three volatile fractions, using two stationary phases based on β-cyclodextrins. As a result, twelve chiral components were investigated, detecting both enantiomerically pure compounds and scalemic mixtures with various enantiomeric excess. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils)

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18 pages, 1311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Metabolic Profiling and Biological Evaluation of Essential Oils from Conocarpus Species: Antidiabetic, Antioxidant, and Antimicrobial Potential

by Aya Salim, Alya Ali Arasteh, Ruqaiya Sahrish, Danya Labash, Ali A. El-Keblawy, Haidy A. Gad and Naglaa S. Ashmawy

Plants 2025, 14(3), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14030464 - 5 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1067

Abstract

Essential oils (EOs) are a diverse source of bioactive compounds with remarkable therapeutic potential. Despite their significance, Conocarpus EOs have been largely underexplored. This study provides a novel comparison of the metabolic profiles and biological activities of EOs from C. lancifolius, C. erectus green, and C. erectus silver leaves cultivated in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), offering unique insights into their distinct bioactive properties and potential therapeutic applications. EOs were extracted via hydro-distillation, analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and subjected to chemometric analysis. Their antioxidant (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assays), antidiabetic (α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition and antimicrobial activities were assessed. A total of 92 metabolites were identified, with heptacosane and nonacosane as key species discriminants. C. lancifolius EO showed the strongest α-amylase (IC₅₀ 8.75 ± 0.54 µg/mL) and α-glucosidase (IC₅₀ 22.31 ± 0.92 µg/mL) inhibitory activities, while C. erectus silver demonstrated superior antioxidant capacity (IC₅₀ 349.78 ± 8.26 µg/mL, DPPH assay). C. lancifolius EO exhibited the best antimicrobial activity, particularly against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC 625 µg/mL). C. erectus silver EO inhibited E. coli and C. albicans (MIC 625 µg/mL). In contrast, C. erectus EOs showed no activity against Aspergillus niger. These findings highlight the potential of Conocarpus EOs as antioxidants and for managing diabetes that may be utilized either in nutraceuticals, dietary supplements or even in pharmaceutical formulations. Moreover, owing to significant antimicrobial activities, the EOs may be added to medical disinfectants and several pharmaceutical products. However, further, in vivo validation and pharmaceutical exploration is still needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils)

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15 pages, 2968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gynoxys reinaldii Cuatrec. and Gynoxys pulchella (Kunth) Cass.: Chemical and Enantioselective Analyses of Two Unprecedented Essential Oils from Ecuador

by Yessenia E. Maldonado, María del Carmen Rodríguez, Karyna Calvopiña, Omar Malagón, Nixon Cumbicus and Gianluca Gilardoni

Plants 2024, 13(24), 3543; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13243543 - 19 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 820

Abstract

This study presents the first chemical and enantioselective analyses of essential oils (EOs) derived from the leaves of two endemic species, Gynoxys reinaldii Cuatrec. and Gynoxys pulchella (Kunth) Cass., from Loja, Ecuador. The distillation yields, by weight of dry plant material, were 0.04 ± 0.007% for G. reinaldii and 0.03 ± 0.002% for G. pulchella. For both plants, the chemical analyses were conducted by GC-MS (qualitative) and GC-FID (quantitative), on two stationary phases of different polarity (5% phenyl-methylpolysiloxane and polyethylene glycol). The major components of G. reinaldii EO included germacrene D (22.3–22.1%), α-pinene (14.2–14.1%), and (E)-β-caryophyllene (13.6–14.5%). Similarly, G. pulchella EO was characterized by germacrene D (9.5–12.9%), caryophyllene oxide (7.2–6.7%), and n-tricosane (4.9% in both columns). The enantioselective analyses were carried out with two columns, based on 2,3-diacetyl-6-tert-butyldimethylsilyl-β-cyclodextrin and 2,3-diethyl-6-tert-butyldimethylsilyl-β-cyclodextrin, detecting nine chiral terpenes and terpenoids. In G. reinaldii EO, (1S,5S)-(−)-α-pinene, (1S,5S)-(−)-β-pinene, (1S,5S)-(−)-sabinene, (R)-(−)-α-phellandrene, and (R)-(−)-β-phellandrene were enantiomerically pure, whereas cis-linalool oxide, linalool, terpinene-4-ol, and germacrene D were non-racemic mixtures of enantiomers. In G. pulchella, only (R)-(−)-α-phellandrene was enantiomerically pure. The detection of enantiomerically pure compounds may provide insights into the biosynthetic pathways and potential bioactivities of these EOs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils)

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14 pages, 793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Profiling of Drimys granadensis (Winteraceae) Essential Oil, and Their Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Anticholinesterase Properties

by Luis Cartuche, Camila Vallejo, Edison Castillo, Nixon Cumbicus and Vladimir Morocho

Plants 2024, 13(13), 1806; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13131806 - 30 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1337

Abstract

A complete and comprehensive chemical and biological study of Drimys granadensis, a native Ecuadorian aromatic plant, was conducted. By conventional steam distillation from dried leaves, a yellowish, translucent essential oil (EO) with a density of 0.95 and a refractive index of 1.5090 was obtained. The EO was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC/MS) and an FID detector (GC/FID), respectively. Enantiomeric distribution was also carried out by GC/MS using a chiral selective column (diethyl tert-butylsilyl-BETA-cyclodextrin). The microdilution broth method was employed to assess the antibacterial and antifungal activity of the EO against a panel of opportunistic microorganisms. Antioxidant capacity was measured using diphenyl picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) and azino-bis 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radicals. Finally, the inhibitory potential of the EO against acetylcholinesterase was also valued. Sixty-four chemical compounds, constituting 93.27% of the total composition, were identified, with major components including γ-muurolene (10.63%), spathulenol (10.13%), sabinene (5.52%), and δ-cadinene (4.22%). The characteristic taxonomic marker of the Drimys genus, Drimenol, was detected at very low percentages (<2%). Two pairs of enantiomers ((1S,5R)-(+)-α-pinene/(1S,5S)-(–)-α-pinene; (1S,5R)-(+)-β-pinene/(1S,5S)-(–)-β-pinene) and one pure enantiomer (1R,4S)-(–)-camphene were identified. Regarding antimicrobial potency, the EO exhibited a significant moderate effect on Listeria monocytogenes with a minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 250 µg/mL, while with the remaining microorganisms, it exerted less potency, ranging from 500 to 2000 µg/mL. The EO displayed moderate effects against the ABTS radical with a half scavenging capacity of 210.48 µg/mL and no effect against the DPPH radical. The most notable effect was noticed for acetylcholinesterase, with a half inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) of 63.88 ± 1.03 µg/mL. These antiradical and anticholinesterase effects hint at potential pharmacological applications in Alzheimer’s disease treatment, although the presence of safrole, albeit in low content (ca. 2%), could limit this opportunity. Further in vivo studies are necessary to fully understand their potential applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis and Biological Activities of Plant Essential Oils)

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