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Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Ecology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2026 | Viewed by 15464

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Prof. Dr. Kleber Del-Claro

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Laboratório de Ecologia Comportamental e de Interações, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Cx. P. 593, Uberlândia CEP 38400-920, MG, Brazil
Interests: animal behavior; arthropod–plant interactions; behavioral ecology; plant–animal interactions
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Dear Colleagues,

The world has undergone rapid changes over the recent two hundred years, leading to the destruction and severe modification of natural environments, as well as an increase in Earth's temperature. In this context, biodiversity is facing significant threats. One of the main factors that produces and maintains diversity encompasses the complex and conditional interactions between plants and animals. Despite our progress in understanding these relationships, several aspects remain neglected, such as the importance of considering plant anatomy, morphology, and the natural history of related plants and animals.

This Special Issue of Plants invites contributions to explore how fundamental aspects of plant–animal interactions—such as plant anatomy and the natural history of plants and animals—shape the outcomes of these relationships. Additionally, environmental factors, including seasonality, play a significant role in modulating these interactions, and current climate change has affected them in noticeable ways. Therefore, this Special Issue is interested in both direct and isolated effects, as well as the more complex and integrated impacts, with regard to the outcomes of plant–animal interactions.

Prof. Dr. Kleber Del-Claro
Guest Editor

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Keywords

ecological interactions
mutualism
herbivory
plant morphology
plant defense
plant-animal relationships

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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26 pages, 4650 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vegetation Structure Drives Seasonal and Diel Dynamics of Avian Soundscapes in an Urban Wetland

by Zhe Wen, Zhewen Ye, Yunfeng Yang and Yao Xiong

Plants 2026, 15(7), 1023; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15071023 - 26 Mar 2026

Viewed by 483

Abstract

Urban wetlands are acoustic hotspots where vegetation structure, hydrological dynamics, and anthropogenic noise interact, yet multi-season assessments of how vegetation influences avian soundscapes are limited. This study explored bird soundscape dynamics across forest, open forest grassland, and meadow habitats in Nanjing Xinjizhou National Wetland Park, eastern China, using passive acoustic monitoring during spring and autumn 2023. Twelve sampling points (four per vegetation type) were established, and six acoustic indices were calculated, including the Acoustic Complexity Index (ACI), Acoustic Diversity Index (ADI), Acoustic Evenness Index (AEI), Bioacoustic Index (BIO), Normalized Difference Soundscape Index (NDSI), and Acoustic Entropy Index (H). were calculated from 48-h recordings each season. Random forest models and redundancy analysis assessed the relationships between acoustic indices, fine-scale vegetation parameters (e.g., crown width, tree height, species richness), and anthropogenic factors (e.g., distance to roads/trails, surface hardness). Vegetation structure, particularly crown width, was the primary driver of avian acoustic diversity, with broad-crowned forests consistently exhibiting the highest acoustic complexity. In spring, anthropogenic factors such as trail and road proximity dominated soundscape variation, suppressing biological sounds. In autumn, with reduced human presence, vegetation structure emerged as the dominant factor, while bioacoustic activity remained elevated despite reduced peaks in acoustic complexity. Proximity to roads increased low-frequency (1–2 kHz) noise and suppressed mid-frequency (4–8 kHz) bird vocalizations, but trees with crown widths ≥4 m maintained higher acoustic diversity even near disturbance sources. This study demonstrates that vegetation structure mediates both resource availability and sound propagation, buffering the effects of anthropogenic disturbance in frequency-specific ways. Multi-season sampling is crucial for understanding the dynamic interplay between vegetation phenology and human activity that shapes urban wetland soundscapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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15 pages, 1359 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Range Expansion of Obligate Antagonists but Not Mutualists in a Desert Fig (Ficus petiolaris)

by Molly Gans and Judith L. Bronstein

Plants 2026, 15(7), 1012; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15071012 - 26 Mar 2026

Viewed by 534

Abstract

Species may respond to climate change by shifting habitats. For species that engage in obligate interactions, however, such range shifts are only possible if the interaction can occur in the extended range, either via dispersal of the original interaction partner or by acquisition of a novel interaction partner in the extended range. To explore how obligate interactions may persist by parallel dispersal of partners, we investigated the community of obligate fig wasps associated with an isolated fig tree (Ficus petiolaris) in Arizona, USA, found 200 km north of its native range. We expected that if the fig wasps (the single obligate pollinator as well, perhaps, as species-specific non-pollinating wasp associates) were occasionally acquired via dispersal from the native range, then (a) there would be months in which fig wasps were absent, and (b) fig wasps would not be genetically differentiated from those in the native range. Conversely, if fig wasps had formed persistent populations in Arizona on the single tree, we expected that (a) the tree would exhibit high reproductive asynchrony, a trait necessary for long-term pollinator persistence, and (b) the pollinator species would be present throughout the study. We collected and identified fig wasps from this tree for 20 months to determine the composition of the community as well as presence/absence patterns. We also used existing genetic data from two species of non-pollinating fig wasps from Arizona to determine their geographic origin and the extent of genetic differentiation from the same species in the native range. We found a persistent fig wasp community, but one consisting almost exclusively of at least two non-pollinating species in the genus Idarnes; the pollinator species was virtually absent. Our results suggest that previously unknown aspects of the natural history of Idarnes have allowed it to follow its fig tree host out of their shared range. These results point to several puzzles about range extension, as well as a testable hypothesis that the two Idarnes species groups can only persist without pollinators when they occur in tandem. Future ecological and genomic studies are needed to resolve these issues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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13 pages, 490 KB

Open AccessArticle

Trait-Mediated Variation in Plant Interactive Roles Within Plant–Floral Visitor Networks

by Fernanda Baena-Díaz, Brenda Ratoni, Carlos Pinilla Cruz, Ricardo Ayala and Wesley Dáttilo

Plants 2026, 15(2), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15020289 - 17 Jan 2026

Viewed by 534

Abstract

Plant–pollinator interactions are essential to ecosystem functioning, yet the mechanisms that determine why some plant species become highly connected within interaction networks remain insufficiently understood, particularly in tropical coastal systems. Here, we examine how multiple plant traits predict the interactive role of species within a bee–plant network in a coastal ecosystem in the Gulf of Mexico. Using an existing dataset comprising 35 plant species and 47 bee species, we quantified each plant’s interactive role through species degree, betweenness, and closeness centrality. We then evaluated how six traits (i.e., flower number, flower size, flower color, number of stamens, plant height, and life form) influence these network positions. Our results show that four traits significantly predicted plant interactive roles. Plants surrounded by more open flowers and those with larger flowers interacted with a greater diversity of bee species, indicating that resource detectability and accessibility strongly shape visitation patterns. Herbaceous species also exhibited higher interactive roles than woody plants, likely due to their rapid growth, abundant and synchronous flowering, and predictable resource availability in dynamic coastal environments. Additionally, yellow-flowered species received disproportionately more visits and achieved higher interactive roles, consistent with known sensory biases of bees toward yellow wavelengths. In contrast, plant height and stamen number showed no detectable influence on network position. Overall, our findings demonstrate that a combination of vegetative and floral traits (particularly those signaling abundant, accessible, and visually detectable resources) drives the emergence of key plant species within bee–plant networks. Integrating plant traits with network metrics provides a powerful framework for identifying species that sustain pollinator diversity and for predicting community responses to environmental change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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15 pages, 11375 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond Bees: Evidence of Bird Visitation and Putative Pollination in the Golden Lotus (Musella lasiocarpa)—One of the Six Buddhist Flowers—Through Field Surveys and Citizen Science

by Sinzinando Albuquerque-Lima, Bruno Henrique dos Santos Ferreira, André Rodrigo Rech, Jeff Ollerton, Klaus Lunau, Guy Smagghe, Kai-Qin Li, Paulo Eugênio Oliveira and Zong-Xin Ren

Plants 2025, 14(20), 3157; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14203157 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1995

Abstract

Vertebrate pollination is widespread in Musaceae, with birds and bats serving as the main pollen vectors across the family. While these systems are typically well defined, the Golden Lotus (Musella lasiocarpa) has long been regarded as an exception, presumed to rely on insect, particularly bee, pollination. In this study, we challenge that assumption by providing the first comprehensive evidence of bird visitation and putative pollination in M. lasiocarpa. Through field surveys complemented by citizen science observations, we documented an unexpectedly rich assemblage of avian visitors: twelve bird species from five families regularly foraged at flowers and likely acted as pollinators. This represents a striking expansion of the known potential pollinator spectrum for the species and highlights a previously overlooked dimension of its reproductive ecology. The floral traits of M. lasiocarpa, including vivid bracts, accessible nectar, and extended flowering, align closely with adaptations to bird pollination. Beyond clarifying the natural history of the Golden Lotus, our findings reveal broader insights into the ecological and cultural significance of bird pollination in the Chinese flora, with implications for both biodiversity conservation and horticultural practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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16 pages, 7895 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fig Macula as a Key Multifunctional Structure Mediating the Fig–Fig Wasp Mutualism

by Simone Pádua Teixeira, Jackeline Varanda Silva, Vitor Cassius Santos, Luan Mazzeo, Rayssa Conceição Coelho Correa and Rodrigo Augusto Santinelo Pereira

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2885; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182885 - 17 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1401

Abstract

Plant-insect mutualisms often drive the evolution of adaptive morphological and physiological traits, enabling ecological specialization and diversification. Fig trees (Ficus spp., Moraceae) and their pollinating wasps (Agaonidae) are engaged in a brood-site pollination mutualism that exemplifies such adaptive specializations. This study investigates the morphological and ecological roles of maculae, characterized as distinct-pigmented regions on the fig surface, in the mutualistic interaction between Ficus citrifolia and fig wasps. Through morphological analyses using light and electron microscopy, we demonstrated that maculae concentrate numerous stomata and exhibit secretory activity. This activity is evidenced by the exudation of a sugary-like solution and by the presence of epidermal and subepidermal cells with features consistent with sugar- and terpene-secreting cells, such as abundant starch reserves, numerous mitochondria, plastids containing osmiophilic droplets, a Golgi complex with dilated cisternae, oil bodies, and extensive endoplasmic reticulum. Histochemical tests confirmed a terpenic-sugary secretion in the macula cells. We demonstrated that non-pollinating fig wasps avoid ovipositing through macular regions. This behavior may reflect a selective pressure to prevent structural damage to maculae caused by ovipositor insertion, thus preserving their functional integrity. Temperature measurements revealed that figs are up to 10% cooler on average than the ambient air. Therefore, our findings suggest that fig maculae are multifunctional structures, simultaneously performing the roles of extrafloral nectaries, gas exchange, and thermal regulation, which are crucial for maintaining suitable internal conditions for wasp larval development. These results provide novel insights into previously underexplored plant adaptations supporting specialized brood-site pollination mutualisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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20 pages, 3926 KB

Open AccessArticle

Plant-Pollinator and Plant-Florivore Interactions in Two Savanna Species of Malpighiaceae

by Ludimila Juliele Carvalho-Leite and Helena Maura Torezan-Silingardi

Plants 2025, 14(16), 2519; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14162519 - 13 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1701

Abstract

Plant density influences interspecific interactions such as pollination and herbivory. In denser populations, pollinators find flowers more easily, increasing reproductive success and population growth. However, the same floral attractiveness also favors floral herbivory, a relationship described by Janzen and Connell as negative density dependence, considered an important mechanism for maintaining tropical diversity. This study analyzed the reproduction of Peixotoa tomentosa A. Juss. (Malpighiaceae) and Byrsonima intermedia A. Juss. (Malpighiaceae), considering population density and its influence on pollinator and herbivore attraction. The central hypothesis was that density affects fruit production. We conducted two treatments with both species: high density and low density in a preserved Brazilian savanna. We investigated fruit production, reproductive system, floral visitation rates, and the florivory rates of each species on each treatment. Our results showed that fruiting increased with density in both species. Peixotoa tomentosa is an agamospermous species, while B. intermedia is self-incompatible and relies exclusively on pollinators. Bees visited only B. intermedia, and the high-density treatment received more visits. Herbivores attacked more isolated P. tomentosa flowers. We concluded that density influences both pollination and herbivory, affecting plant reproduction, with effects mediated by the plant’s attractiveness in denser populations and by the size and quantity of flowers in single individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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14 pages, 2352 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Frost and Fire on the Traits, Resources, and Floral Visitors of a Cerrado Plant, and Their Impact on the Plant–Visitor Interaction Network and Fruit Formation

by Gabriela Fraga Porto, José Henrique Pezzonia, Ludimila Juliele Carvalho Leite, Jordanny Luiza Sousa Santos and Kleber Del-Claro

Plants 2025, 14(13), 1977; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14131977 - 28 Jun 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2474 | Correction

Abstract

The Cerrado, the world’s most diverse savanna, has several adaptations to fire. However, intense and frequent fires, especially after frosts, can severely impact this ecosystem. Despite this, few studies have evaluated the combined effects of frost followed by fire. We investigated how these disturbances affect plant traits, floral resources, floral visitor richness, and the structures of plant–pollinator interaction networks by using Byrsonima intermedia, a common Malpighiaceae shrub, as a model. We compared areas affected by frost alone and frost followed by fire and the same fire-affected area two years later. We examined pollen, oil volume, buds, and racemes and recorded floral visitors. Our main hypothesis was that fire-affected areas would exhibit higher floral visitor richness, more conspicuous plant traits, and greater fruit production than areas affected by frost only, which would show higher interaction generalization due to stronger negative impacts. The results confirmed that frost drastically reduced floral traits, visitor richness, and reproductive success. In contrast, fire facilitated faster recovery, triggering increased floral resource quantities, richer pollinator communities, more specialized interactions, and greater fruit production. Our findings highlight that fire, despite its impact, promotes faster ecosystem recovery compared to frost, reinforcing its ecological role in the Cerrado’s resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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12 pages, 500 KB

Open AccessArticle

Trait-Based Selection of Seeds Ingested and Dispersed by North American Waterfowl

by Bia A. Almeida, Mihai Costea, Giliandro G. Silva, Leonardo Maltchik, Susan E. W. De La Cruz, John Y. Takekawa and Andy J. Green

Plants 2025, 14(13), 1964; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14131964 - 26 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1707

Abstract

There are few studies on the extent to which waterfowl select plant food compared with what is available in wetland ecosystems. We used a new dataset on the presence of seeds in the alimentary canal or feces to identify flowering plant species whose seeds are ingested by North American ducks or geese. These data are a proxy for dispersal interactions because an important fraction of ingested seeds survives gut passage and is dispersed by endozoochory. We compared the plant traits of species whose seeds were ingested with those of species on the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Wetland Plants List (NWPL). Using a global dataset on plant form and function and chi-squared tests, we compared four categorical traits (moisture requirements, growth form, plant height, and seed mass) between species whose seeds are ingested by North American ducks and geese with the NWPL. Our analyses identified significant differences between the trait distributions of plants whose seeds were ingested by waterfowl guilds and those of the NWPL. Geese and ducks (except whistling ducks) ingested more aquatic and semiaquatic plant species than expected from the NWPL. All guilds except sea ducks ingested more herbaceous graminoids and fewer shrubs or trees than expected. Diving ducks interacted with fewer of the taller plants (>5 m) than expected, but otherwise plant height distributions did not differ from those expected. All waterfowl guilds ingested more species of intermediate seed size (1–10 mg) and fewer species of the smallest (<0.1 mg) or largest (>100 mg) size categories than expected. These results help to explain the role of the long-distance dispersal of seeds by migratory waterfowl in plant biogeography and how plant distributions are likely to respond to global change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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11 pages, 13767 KB

Open AccessArticle

First Record of Flower Bud Galls in Senega (Fabales: Polygalaceae): The Case of S. salasiana and Their Effect on Plant Reproduction

by Agustina Martinez, Nicolás Kuzmanich and Alejandro Farji-Brener

Plants 2025, 14(9), 1337; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14091337 - 29 Apr 2025

Viewed by 1109

Abstract

We report the first case of flower bud galls in a species of the mainly American genus Senega (Polygalaceae), specifically in the South Andean Patagonian plant species S. salasiana. The galls were found to be induced by gall midges (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae) and mites (Acari). We also assessed their impact on plant reproduction by measuring the relationship between inflorescence density (number of inflorescences/plant cover) and gall abundance in two populations next to San Carlos de Bariloche, Patagonia, Argentina. Plant reproduction was negatively related to the number of galled inflorescences, suggesting that high levels of gall abundance strongly reduced plant reproductive success. Our study illustrates a novel case of flower galls in the genus Senega and highlights the negative impact of this type of herbivory on plant fitness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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12 pages, 14358 KB

Open AccessArticle

Light Adaptations of Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth: Functional Analysis of Leaf and Petal Interfaces

by Zhanlin Bei, Lulu Lu, Zubayda Amar and Xin Zhang

Plants 2025, 14(6), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14060862 - 10 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1732

Abstract

In low-light environments, plants face challenges in maximizing light acquisition for growth and reproduction. This study investigates the light-related adaptations of Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth, a climbing annual vine commonly known as morning glory. Field and laboratory analyses focused on the functionality of its leaf and petal interfaces. We observed that tendrils of I. purpurea enable it to climb surrounding structures, optimizing light capture. The leaves display absorption peaks at 400 nm and 700 nm, typical for plants that absorb light in the red and blue regions, with microstructural features like protrusions and folds aiding in self-cleaning. Petals, exhibiting grid-like patterns and specific reflectance spectra, attract pollinators such as bees. These functional traits, including self-cleaning mechanisms and specialized light absorption, highlight I. purpurea’s unique strategies for thriving in low-light conditions. The findings offer valuable insights into the potential use of I. purpurea for urban landscaping, vertical greening, and ornamental plant selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Porto et al. The Effects of Frost and Fire on the Traits, Resources, and Floral Visitors of a Cerrado Plant, and Their Impact on the Plant–Visitor Interaction Network and Fruit Formation. Plants 2025, 14, 1977

by Gabriela Fraga Porto, José Henrique Pezzonia, Ludimila Juliele Carvalho Leite, Jordanny Luiza Sousa Santos and Kleber Del-Claro

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3027; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193027 - 30 Sep 2025

Viewed by 462

Abstract

An error occurred in the original publication [...] Full article

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