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Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry
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Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2024) | Viewed by 9847

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Degao Zhai

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Guest Editor
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: Ag-Pb-Zn deposits; epithermal deposits; ore genesis
Dr. Yucai Song

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Guest Editor
Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
Interests: Pb-Zn mineralization; MVT deposits; Tethyan domain
Prof. Dr. Panagiotis Voudouris

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Guest Editor
Faculty of Geology & Geoenvironment, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University Campus, GR-15784 Athens, Greece
Interests: ore minerals; critical metals; magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits; mineralogy of hydrothermal alterations in porphyry-epithermal systems; mineralogy and genesis of gemstones
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Stylianos Tombros

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Guest Editor
Department of Materials Science, School of Natural Sciences, University of Patras, 26504 Rio Patras, Greece
Interests: VMS deposits; hydrothermal mineralization; geochemistry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Silver–lead–zinc mineralization has made a key contribution to the global supply of Ag and base metals, which are critical to our human life. Furthermore, numerous studies have identified that a large number of strategic metals could be hosted in sulfides from the Ag-Pb-Zn deposits. Therefore, more attention should be given to further understanding the geological occurrences, metal sources, fluid transport and metal precipitation, as well as ore exploration for those ore deposits worldwide. Even though some of those deposits demonstrate a close temporal, spatial, and genetic association with porphyry (e.g., porphyry–skarn–epithermal types), some Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization typically occurs peripheral to the porphyry systems and shows no genetic relation to the magmatic process (e.g., MVT and sandstone-hosted type). It could be relatively well understood for the metal and fluid sources for Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization related to the porphyry system; however, those possibilities related to non-magmatic conditions could be much more diverse. To better summarize and infer the genesis of the Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization in various geological conditions, this Special Issue will involve papers from various aspects, scales, and types for global Ag-Pb-Zn ore deposits.

Dr. Degao Zhai
Dr. Yucai Song
Prof. Dr. Panagiotis Voudouris
Dr. Stylianos Tombros
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization
  • genetic model
  • ore-forming fluids
  • metal source
  • fluid evolution
  • geochronology
  • geochemistry
  • ore exploration

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 5835 KiB  
Article
LA-ICP-MS Trace Element Characteristics and Geological Significance of Stibnite in the Zhaxikang Pb–Zn–Ag–Sb Deposit, Southern Tibet, SW China
by Zijun Qiu, Jinchao Wu, Panagiotis Voudouris, Stylianos Tombros, Jiajun Liu and Degao Zhai
Minerals 2024, 14(12), 1294; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121294 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 919
Abstract
Discovered within the North Himalayan Metallogenic Belt (NHMB), the Zhaxikang Pb–Zn–Ag–Sb deposit stands as the sole super-large scale ore deposit in the region. This deposit holds significant quantities of Pb and Zn (2.066 million tons at 6.38% average grade), Ag (2661 tons at [...] Read more.
Discovered within the North Himalayan Metallogenic Belt (NHMB), the Zhaxikang Pb–Zn–Ag–Sb deposit stands as the sole super-large scale ore deposit in the region. This deposit holds significant quantities of Pb and Zn (2.066 million tons at 6.38% average grade), Ag (2661 tons at an average of 101.64 g/t), and Sb (0.235 million tons at 1.14% average grade), making it one of China’s foremost Sb–polymetallic deposits. Stibnite represents the main carrier of Sb in this deposit and has been of great attention since its initial discovery. However, the trace element composition of stibnite in the Zhaxikang deposit has not yet been determined. This study carried out an analysis of the distribution patterns and substitution processes of trace elements within stibnite gathered from the Zhaxikang deposit, aiming to provide crucial information on ore-forming processes. Utilizing high-precision laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), we discovered that the studied stibnite is notably enriched in arsenic (~100 ppm) and lead (~10 ppm). Furthermore, the notably consistent time-resolved profiles suggest that elements such as Fe, Cu, As, In, Sn, Hg, and Pb predominantly exist as solid solutions within stibnite. Consequently, it is probable that the enrichment of Cu, Pb, and Sn in stibnite is due to isomorphic substitution reactions, including 3Pb2+↔2Sb3+, Cu+ + Pb2+↔Sb3+, and In3+ + Sn3+↔2Sb3+. Apart from that, Mn, Pb, and Hg with the spiky signals indicate their existence within stibnite as micro-inclusions. Overall, we found that the trace element substitutions in stibnite from the Zhaxikang Pb–Zn–Ag–Sb deposit are complicated. Incorporations of trace elements such as Pb, Cu, and In into stibnite are largely influenced by a variety of factors. The simple lattice structure and constant trace elements in studied stibnite indicate a low-temperature hydrothermal system and a relatively stable process for stibnite formation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry)
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22 pages, 12900 KiB  
Article
Origin and Evolution of Ore-Forming Fluid and Metallogenic Mechanism of the Baoshan Cu-Pb-Zn Deposit, South China: Constraints of Fluid Inclusion and C-H-O Isotopes
by Xueling Dai, Yongshun Li, Junke Zhang, Zhongfa Liu, Ke Chen and Mingpeng He
Minerals 2024, 14(10), 961; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14100961 - 24 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1089
Abstract
The Southern Hunan area is located in the superposition of the Qin-Hang Cu-Pb-Zn polymetallic ore belt and the Nanling W-Sn-Mo polymetallic ore belt, which is an important window to study the mineralization of W-Sn-Mo and Cu-Pb-Zn polymetallic deposits. The Baoshan deposit is a [...] Read more.
The Southern Hunan area is located in the superposition of the Qin-Hang Cu-Pb-Zn polymetallic ore belt and the Nanling W-Sn-Mo polymetallic ore belt, which is an important window to study the mineralization of W-Sn-Mo and Cu-Pb-Zn polymetallic deposits. The Baoshan deposit is a large Cu-Pb-Zn polymetallic deposit in Southern Hunan Province with obvious zones of Cu mineralization and Pb-Zn mineralization: the central part of the Baoshan deposit demonstrates contact metasomatic (skarn) Cu mineralization, while the western, northern and eastern parts demonstrate hydrothermal vein Pb-Zn mineralization. However, the origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluid and mechanism of Cu and Pb-Zn mineral precipitation are still unclear. The metallogenic process of the Baoshan Cu-Pb-Zn deposit can be divided into four stages: (1) the early skarn stage (S1); (2) the late skarn stage (S2); (3) the Cu-Fe sulfide stage (S3); and (4) the Pb-Zn sulfide stage (S4). The results of microtemperature measurements and a Raman spectrometric analysis of fluid inclusions show that the ore-forming fluid was the H2O-NaCl (-CO2 ± N2 ± C2H6) system in the skarn stages (S1 + S2) and changed into the H2O-NaCl-CO2 (±N2 ± C2H6) system in the sulfide stages (S3 + S4). The temperature (S1: 436.6~548.2 °C; S2: 344.1~435.1 °C; S3: 134.1~413.1 °C; S4: 183.9~261.0 °C) and salinity (S1: 17.4~51.2 wt.%NaClequiv; S2: 13.6~41.7 wt.%NaClequiv; S3: 1.2~32.3 wt.%NaClequiv; S4: 1.8~9.6 wt.%NaClequiv) showed a downward trend from the early to late stages. From the skarn stages (S1 + S2) to the sulfide stages (S3 + S4), the ore-forming pressure results from the static rock pressure and the hydrostatic pressure, and the ore-forming depth is estimated to be about three to six km. The C-H-O isotopic compositions of hydrothermal minerals such as quartz and calcite indicate that the ore-forming fluid is predominately magmatic fluid, but a significant amount of meteoric water is added in the Pb-Zn sulfide stage (S4). The formation of the mineralization zonation of the Baoshan deposit is the result of many factors (e.g., stratigraphy, structure and metal precipitation mechanism): the Cu mineralization is controlled by the contact zone, and the Pb-Zn mineralization is controlled by the fault. In addition, the precipitation of Cu is mainly controlled by fluid boiling, while the precipitation of Pb and Zn is mainly controlled by the mixing of magmatic fluid and meteoric water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry)
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29 pages, 17840 KiB  
Article
Geochronology and Geochemistry of Granodiorite Porphyry in the Baoshan Cu-Pb-Zn Deposit, South China: Insights into Petrogenesis and Metallogeny
by Xueling Dai, Ke Chen, Junke Zhang, Yongshun Li, Mingpeng He and Zhongfa Liu
Minerals 2024, 14(9), 897; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090897 - 30 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 802
Abstract
The Baoshan Cu-Pb-Zn deposit is situated at the intersection of the Qin-Hang Cu polymetallic and Nanling W-Sn polymetallic metallogenic belts. The age, lithology, petrogenesis, and tectonic setting of granodiorite porphyry within the deposit remain subjects of debate. Additionally, there is a lack of [...] Read more.
The Baoshan Cu-Pb-Zn deposit is situated at the intersection of the Qin-Hang Cu polymetallic and Nanling W-Sn polymetallic metallogenic belts. The age, lithology, petrogenesis, and tectonic setting of granodiorite porphyry within the deposit remain subjects of debate. Additionally, there is a lack of comparative studies with the W-Sn-related granites in the region. This study conducted whole-rock major and trace element analysis, Sr-Nd isotope analysis, and zircon U-Pb dating on the Baoshan granodiorite porphyry. The zircon U-Pb age of the granodiorite porphyry is 162 ± 1 Ma. The whole-rock SiO2 and K2O contents range from 65.87 to 68.21 wt.% and 3.42 to 5.62 wt.%, respectively, indicating that the granodiorite porphyry belongs to high-potassium calc-alkaline I-type granite. The granodiorite porphyry is characterized by enrichment in LREE and depletion in HREE (LREE/HREE ratio = 6.2–21.2). The samples of granodiorite porphyry generally exhibit weak negative Eu anomalies or no Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.62–1.04, mean = 0.82). The (87Sr/86Sr)i and εNd(t) values are 0.707717–0.709506 and −7.54 to −4.87, respectively. The whole-rock geochemical composition and Sr-Nd isotopic values indicate that the magma originated from the partial melting of the Mesoproterozoic ancient crust and Neoproterozoic mafic juvenile lower crust, with the addition of high oxygen fugacity and water-rich lithospheric mantle melts. The source of the granodiorite porphyry in the Baoshan deposit is significantly different from the crust-derived metapelite source of the W-Sn-related granite in the area, indicating that different magma sources might be the main reason for the co-spatial and nearly contemporaneous development of Cu-Pb-Zn and W-Sn mineralization in the southern Hunan region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry)
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19 pages, 12040 KiB  
Article
Trace Element Compositions of Galena and Cerussite from the Bou Dahar MVT District, Morocco: Insights from LA-ICP-MS Analyses
by Kai Zhao, Fafu Wu, Xiang Cheng, Shunbo Cheng, Jinchao Wu, Yaoyan He, Chenggang Wang, Noura Lkebir, Sen Cui, Peng Hu, Jianxiong Wang, Peng Xiang and Jiangtao Liu
Minerals 2024, 14(8), 748; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080748 - 25 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1252
Abstract
The Bou Dahar Pb-Zn district, located in the Moroccan High Atlas, is a typical carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn ore district (>30 Mt at 4 wt.% Pb, 4 wt.% Zn). In situ trace element analysis was performed using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) [...] Read more.
The Bou Dahar Pb-Zn district, located in the Moroccan High Atlas, is a typical carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn ore district (>30 Mt at 4 wt.% Pb, 4 wt.% Zn). In situ trace element analysis was performed using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) on galena and cerussite from different ore types. The galena is generally enriched in Ag and Sb, secondarily enriched in Cu, with a trace amount of Cd and As, but extremely depleted in Bi and Tl. The main substitution mechanism in galena is (Ag, Cu)+ + Sb3+ ↔ 2Pb2+, and at high Sb concentrations, the further substitution of 2Sb3+ + □ ↔ 3Pb2+ (where □ represents a vacancy) took place. Micro-inclusions of Cu-Sb-bearing minerals (such as tetrahedrite) and Ag-bearing minerals (such as acanthite) may exist in some situations. The features of trace elements in galena show the existence of different coupled substitutions in vein-related ore, breccia-related ore, and strata-bound ore. This suggests that the Bou Dahar district experienced multistage mineralization. The MVT model alone cannot fully explain the ore-forming process. The cerussite replacing strata-bound galena is enriched in Sr, Ba, Ag, and Cu, with minor Sb, As, and Tl. Strontium and Ba are directly substituted with Pb in the cerussite lattice. Copper and Ag are likely present in cerussite as nano-inclusions, which differs from the coupled substitution mechanism of the original galena. High concentrations of Ag may occur due to minor electrum inclusions. The enrichment of Ag, Cu, and Au in cerussite during the oxidation process may guide the optimization of ore processing, especially in extracting valuable trace/minor elements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry)
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14 pages, 12256 KiB  
Article
Genesis of Gypsum/Anhydrite in the World-Class Jinding Zn-Pb Deposit, SW China: Constraints from Field Mapping, Petrography, and S-O-Sr Isotope Geochemistry
by Gang Huang, Yu-Cai Song, Liang-Liang Zhuang, Chuan-Dong Xue, Li-Dan Tian and Wei Wu
Minerals 2024, 14(6), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14060564 - 29 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1300
Abstract
The world-class Jinding deposit in SW China has ~15 Mt of Zn and Pb metals combined, in an evaporite dome containing amounts of gypsum/anhydrite. These gypsum and anhydrite are mainly located in limestone breccias (Member I), gypsum-bearing complexes (Member III), and red mélange, [...] Read more.
The world-class Jinding deposit in SW China has ~15 Mt of Zn and Pb metals combined, in an evaporite dome containing amounts of gypsum/anhydrite. These gypsum and anhydrite are mainly located in limestone breccias (Member I), gypsum-bearing complexes (Member III), and red mélange, with some occurring as veins in clast-free sandstone (Member IV) and as fractures/vugs of host rock. The gypsum/anhydrite and dome genesis remain equivocal. The gypsum in limestone breccias and in red mélange with flow texture contains numerous Late Triassic Sanhedong limestone fragments. The δ34S (14.1%–17%), δ18O (9.7%–14.6%), and 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.706913–0.708711) of these gypsum are close to the S-O-Sr isotopes of the Upper Triassic Sanhedong Formation anhydrite in the Lanping Basin (δ34S = 15.2%–15.9%, δ18O = 10.9%–13.1%, 87Sr/86Sr = 0.707541–0.707967), and are inconsistent with the Paleocene Yunlong Formation gypsum in the Lanping Basin (87Sr/86Sr = 0.709406–0.709845), indicating that these gypsum were derived from the Upper Triassic Sanhedong Formation evaporite but not from the Paleocene Yunlong Formation, and formed as a result of evaporite diapirism. The δ34S (14.3%–14.5%), δ18O (10.1%–10.3%), and 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.709503–0.709725) of gypsum as gypsum–sand mixtures in gypsum-bearing complexes are similar to the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of gypsum in the Yunlong Formation of the Lanping Basin and Cenozoic basins in the northern part of the Himalayan–Tibetan orogen, suggesting that the material source of this gypsum was derived from the Yunlong Formation, and formed as a result of gypsum–sand diapirism. The gypsum veins in clast-free pillow-shaped mineralized sandstone and the gypsum in host rock fractures and vugs formed after the supergene minerals such as smithsonite. The δ34S (−16.3%~−12.7%) and δ18O (−9.8%~−4.7%) of this gypsum indicate that the gypsum is of supergene origin with sulfate derived from the reoxidation of reduced sulfur. We confirmed that the Jinding dome is genetically related to diapir of the Late-Triassic Sanhedong Formation evaporite. Clast-free sandstone and gypsum-bearing complexes in the dome were produced by diapir of the Paleocene Yunlong Formation unconsolidated gypsum–sand mixtures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry)
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15 pages, 5721 KiB  
Article
A Late Jurassic Epithermal Pb-Zn Deposit: Insights from Rb-Sr Dating of Quartz-Hosted Fluid Inclusions and Sphalerite Chemical Composition
by Zheng Xia, Zengxia Zhao, Xiang Zou and Lei Liu
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050485 - 2 May 2024
Viewed by 1412
Abstract
The Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit, situated within the Shuikoushan polymetallic ore field in Changning, Hunan Province, China, is a large-scale Pb-Zn deposit unearthed in 1976. Based on detailed geological field investigations, this study presents the results of the Rb-Sr isotopic dating, electron probe microanalyses [...] Read more.
The Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit, situated within the Shuikoushan polymetallic ore field in Changning, Hunan Province, China, is a large-scale Pb-Zn deposit unearthed in 1976. Based on detailed geological field investigations, this study presents the results of the Rb-Sr isotopic dating, electron probe microanalyses (EPMAs), and LA-ICP-MS analyses of the Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit in order to determine the ore-forming age and the occurrence of trace elements in sphalerite and thereby constrain the genesis of the deposit. The Rb-Sr dating of quartz-hosted fluid inclusions yielded an Rb-Sr isochron age of 150 ± 4 Ma, with an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.71101 ± 0.00008 (MSWD = 1.1), suggesting that the Pb-Zn mineralization of the Kangjiawan deposit took place during the Late Jurassic, coeval with the magmatic activities within the ore field. EPMA and LA-ICP-MS analyses showed that Fe, Mn, and Cd were primarily incorporated into the sphalerite lattice through isomorphous substitution. Specifically, Fe and Mn substituted for Zn, whereas Cd replaced both Fe and Zn. Other elements such as Cu, Sb, and Sn occurred within the sphalerite lattice through mineral micro-inclusions or isomorphic substitution. EPMAs and LA-ICP-MS results showed that the FeS contents in sphalerite were less than 14.33%, with corresponding ore-forming temperatures below 259 °C. The LA-ICP-MS results showed that sphalerites from the Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit had relatively high Ga/In ratios ranging from 0.01 to 144, providing further support for medium-to-low-temperature mineralization. The trace element compositions of sphalerites from the Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit exhibit skarn-type characteristics, suggesting a potential association with contemporary magmatic activities within the Shuikoushan ore field. During the Late Jurassic, extensive granitic magmatic activities occurred in the study area. At the late stage of magma crystallization, hydrothermal fluid containing Pb and Zn precipitated at medium-to-low temperatures and generated the Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry)
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23 pages, 55036 KiB  
Article
Microfabrics, In Situ Trace Element Compositions of Pyrite, and the Sulfur Isotope Chemistry of Sulfides from the Xitieshan Pb-Zn Deposit, Qinghai Province, Northwest China: Analysis and Implications
by Hui Yang and Huashan Sun
Minerals 2023, 13(12), 1549; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121549 - 15 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1718
Abstract
The Xitieshan deposit, located in the central segment of the northern margin of the Qaidam Basin, is among the largest massive Pb-Zn sulfide deposits in China. This deposit, along with its ore-bearing rock series known as the Tanjianshan Group, underwent greenschist facies metamorphism [...] Read more.
The Xitieshan deposit, located in the central segment of the northern margin of the Qaidam Basin, is among the largest massive Pb-Zn sulfide deposits in China. This deposit, along with its ore-bearing rock series known as the Tanjianshan Group, underwent greenschist facies metamorphism due to subsequent orogeny. We investigated the in situ sulfur isotopes of sulfides with different occurrences to define the origin of ore-forming fluids. The δ34S values of sulfides from stratiform ores, massive ores in schist, stockwork ores in marble, schist and discolored altered rocks that constitute a typical double-mineralization structure range from −5.3‰ to +5.6‰ and from −1.7‰ to +32‰, respectively, indicating distinct biological and thermochemical reductions in seawater sulfates. These are similar to the sulfur isotopic characteristics of VSHMS deposits. Pyrite, whose LA-ICP-MS trace element compositions can provide significant information about metallogenic evolution and deposit genesis, is ubiquitous throughout the whole mineralization process. In these stratiform, massive and stockwork ores, three pyrite types were identified: colloform pyrite (Py0), fine-grained anhedral spongy pyrite (Py1) and coarse-grained euhedral pyrite (Py2). The contents of most metallogenic elements, such as Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Mo, Mn and Sn, decrease from Py0 to Py2 with the enhancement of metamorphic recrystallization. This suggests that the expelled elements appear as inclusions in primitive pyrite, contributing to the precipitation of new sulfide phases, such as sphalerite and galena. Orogenic metamorphism played an important role in controlling further Pb-Zn enrichment of the Xitieshan deposit. Moreover, there is another mineralization type, primarily occurring as sulfide veins in the undeformed Formation C siltstones of the Tanjianshan Group, which also crosscut early-formed sulfides, showing close-to-zero S isotopic compositions. In this mineralization type, pyrite (Py3) displays high Se/Tl (>10) and Co/Ni (>2.2) ratios, both indicating a minor superimposed post-orogenic magmatic–hydrothermal event. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry)
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