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24 pages, 11273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dispersoids in Al-Mg-Si Alloy AA 6086 Modified by Sc and Y

by Franc Zupanič, Sandi Žist, Mihaela Albu, Ilse Letofsky-Papst, Jaka Burja, Maja Vončina and Tonica Bončina

Materials 2023, 16(8), 2949; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16082949 - 7 Apr 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2665

Abstract

The aluminium alloy AA 6086 attains the highest room temperature strength among Al-Mg-Si alloys. This work studies the effect of Sc and Y on the formation of dispersoids in this alloy, especially L1₂-type ones, which can increase its high-temperature strength. A [...] Read more.

The aluminium alloy AA 6086 attains the highest room temperature strength among Al-Mg-Si alloys. This work studies the effect of Sc and Y on the formation of dispersoids in this alloy, especially L1₂-type ones, which can increase its high-temperature strength. A comprehensive investigation was carried out using light microscopy (LM), scanning (SEM), and transmission (TEM) electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and dilatometry to obtain the information regarding the mechanisms and kinetics of dispersoid formation, particularly during isothermal treatments. Sc and Y caused the formation of L1₂ dispersoids during heating to homogenization temperature and homogenization of the alloys, and during isothermal heat treatments of the as-cast alloys (T5 temper). The highest hardness of Sc and (Sc + Y) modified alloys was attained by heat-treating alloys in the as-cast state in the temperature range between 350 °C and 450 °C (via T5 temper). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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13 pages, 3845 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Zr and Er Addition on the Microstructural Evolution of a Novel Al−Mg−Zn−Er−Zr Alloy during Hot Compression

by Minbao Wu, Wu Wei, Rui Zuo, Shengping Wen, Wei Shi, Xiaorong Zhou, Xiaolan Wu, Kunyuan Gao, Hui Huang and Zuoren Nie

Materials 2023, 16(2), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020858 - 16 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1958

Abstract

The hot compression experiment of homogenized Al−5.2Mg−0.6Mn−0.29Zn−0.16Er–0.12Zr alloy was carried out by the Gleeble-3500 thermal simulation testing system. The deformation behavior in temperatures of 350~500 ℃ and deformation rates of 0.01~10 s⁻¹ was studied. The relationship between stress and strain rate and [...] Read more.

The hot compression experiment of homogenized Al−5.2Mg−0.6Mn−0.29Zn−0.16Er–0.12Zr alloy was carried out by the Gleeble-3500 thermal simulation testing system. The deformation behavior in temperatures of 350~500 ℃ and deformation rates of 0.01~10 s⁻¹ was studied. The relationship between stress and strain rate and deformation temperature was analyzed. The constitutive equation of alloy high-temperature deformation was constructed by the Zener–Hollomon method, and the hot working diagram with the true strain of 0.2 and 0.5 was constructed according to the dynamic material model. The research results show that flow stress has a positive correlation with strain rate and a negative correlation with temperature. The steady flow stress during deformation can be described by a hyperbolic sinusoidal constitutive equation. Adding Er and Zr into Al−Mg alloy can not only refine grains and strengthen precipitation but also form a core–shell Al₃(Er, Zr) phase. In the deformation process, Al₃(Er, Zr) precipitates can pin dislocations and inhibit dynamic recrystallization (DRX). Dynamic recovery (DRV) is dominant during hot deformation. The mechanism of dynamic recovery is dislocation motion. At high temperatures, Al₃(Er, Zr) can also inhibit grain coarsening. The average hot deformation activation energy of the alloy is 203.7 kJ/mol. This high activation energy can be due to the pinning effect of Er and Zr precipitates. The processing map of the alloy was analyzed and combined with the observation of microstructure, the hot deformation instability zone of the alloy was determined, and the suitable process parameters for hot deformation were obtained, which were 450~480 °C, and the strain rate is 0.01~0.09 s⁻¹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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11 pages, 3567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Yield-Point Phenomenon and Plastic Bands in Ferrite–Pearlite Steels

by Hai Qiu, Rintaro Ueji and Tadanobu Inoue

Materials 2023, 16(1), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010195 - 26 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2779

Abstract

Lüders deformation is one type of discontinuous yielding in ferrite–pearlite steel. The yield-point phenomenon and localized plastic bands are two features of the Lüders phenomenon. It is believed that the yield-point phenomenon is related to the formation of plastic bands, but the correlation [...] Read more.

Lüders deformation is one type of discontinuous yielding in ferrite–pearlite steel. The yield-point phenomenon and localized plastic bands are two features of the Lüders phenomenon. It is believed that the yield-point phenomenon is related to the formation of plastic bands, but the correlation between them is unclear. In this study, this correlation was investigated by examining the global and local deformation behaviors in the tension processes of four ferrite–pearlite steels (carbon content, 0.05–0.3%; pearlite fraction, 1.2–32%) via an extensometer and digital image correlation (DIC) technique. The main obtained results are as follows: (1) the degree of yield drop decreased with an increase in the pearlite fraction (the magnitude of the yield stress drop was 8.6–0 MPa), and (2) a plastic band was formed at a certain stress level smaller than the upper yield stress; when the stress level was larger than 92% of the upper yield stress, the upper yield point disappeared. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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29 pages, 10601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Envelope Additive/Subtractive Manufacturing and Thermal Post-Processing of Inconel 718

by Sila Ece Atabay, Priti Wanjara, Fabrice Bernier, Sheida Sarafan, Javad Gholipour, Josh Soost, Robert Amos, Prakash Patnaik and Mathieu Brochu

Materials 2023, 16(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010001 - 20 Dec 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3044

Abstract

This study investigated the application of an in envelope additive/subtractive (LPBF) manufacturing method (Matsuura LUMEX-Avance-25) to fabricate IN718 benchmarking coupons. The coupons were then examined comprehensively for surface finish both with and without high-speed micro-machining. The microstructure of the manufactured IN718 coupons was [...] Read more.

This study investigated the application of an in envelope additive/subtractive (LPBF) manufacturing method (Matsuura LUMEX-Avance-25) to fabricate IN718 benchmarking coupons. The coupons were then examined comprehensively for surface finish both with and without high-speed micro-machining. The microstructure of the manufactured IN718 coupons was investigated thoroughly in the as-fabricated condition and following three different standard and one non-standard post-processing heat treatments. As built coupons revealed columnar grain morphology mainly along the <100> direction with a cellular dendritic sub-grain structure and without any strengthening precipitates. Grain size, aspect ratio, and texture were maintained after each of the applied four heat treatments. Only one of the standard heat treatments resulted in the δ phase formation. The other three heat treatments effectively dissolved the Laves phase preventing the δ formation while promoting the formation of γ′/γ″ precipitates. Despite the observed differences in their microstructures, all of the heat treatments resulted in similar yield and ultimate tensile strength values that ranged between 1103–1205 MPa and 1347–1387 MPa, respectively. These values are above the minimum requirements of 1034 MPa and 1241 MPa for the wrought material. The non-standard heat treatment provided the highest elongation of 24.0 ± 0.1% amongst all the heat-treated specimens without a significant loss in strength, while the standard heat treatment for the wrought parts resulted in the lowest elongation of 18.3 ± 0.7% due to the presence of δ phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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11 pages, 2591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regulation of the Concentration Heterogeneity and Thermal Expansion Coefficient in the Metastable Invar FeNi_31.1 Alloy

by Valery Shabashov, Victor Sagaradze, Andrey Zamatovskii, Kirill Kozlov, Natalya Kataeva and Sergey Danilov

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8627; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238627 - 2 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1707

Abstract

Mössbauer spectroscopy and electron microscopy study of the active redistribution of Ni atoms during the process of polymorphous transformation α→γ in the metastable FeNi_31.1 alloy revealed that slow heating (at the rate of 0.2 K/min) results in the depletion of the initial [...] Read more.

Mössbauer spectroscopy and electron microscopy study of the active redistribution of Ni atoms during the process of polymorphous transformation α→γ in the metastable FeNi_31.1 alloy revealed that slow heating (at the rate of 0.2 K/min) results in the depletion of the initial α-phase with a beneficiation of developing disperse γ-phase plates according to the equilibrium diagram. A regulation possibility of the concentration heterogeneity and austenite thermal expansion coefficient resulted from the polymorphous transformation α→γ was shown. Comparison with data of FeNi₃₅ alloy irradiation by high-energy electrons responsible for the variation of atomic distribution and thermal expansion coefficient (owing to the spinodal decomposition) was performed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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9 pages, 4736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Ca and Mg on the Microstructure and Tribological Properties of YPbSn10 Antifriction Alloy

by Vasile Avram, Ioana Csaki, Ileana Mates, Nicolae Alexandru Stoica, Alina-Maria Stoica and Augustin Semenescu

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3289; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093289 - 4 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1666

Abstract

An alloy YPbSn10 used for antifriction applications was synthetized in a furnace and the structure was improved by a microalloying technique. The elements chosen for microalloying were Ca 2%wt and Mg 2%wt. The microalloying technique proved to have good results in producing alloys [...] Read more.

An alloy YPbSn10 used for antifriction applications was synthetized in a furnace and the structure was improved by a microalloying technique. The elements chosen for microalloying were Ca 2%wt and Mg 2%wt. The microalloying technique proved to have good results in producing alloys with homogeneous composition, with a good distribution of the hard phase. The alloys were produced in a furnace and samples were collected and investigated. The structural properties were investigated using an SEM technique with EDS analyses and XRD to identify the compounds formed during alloying. The tribological properties were investigated to see the improvement obtained in this area. The results revealed a homogeneous composition for both samples, alloyed with Ca or with Mg, and the friction coefficient was reduced after the microalloying with almost 20%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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16 pages, 7349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Novel Co-Free Maraging Steel M789 Prepared by Additive Manufacturing

by Zbigniew Brytan, Mariusz Król, Marcin Benedyk, Wojciech Pakieła, Tomasz Tański, Mengistu Jemberu Dagnaw, Przemysław Snopiński, Marek Pagáč and Adam Czech

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051734 - 25 Feb 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3816

Abstract

This research aims to characterize and examine the microstructure and mechanical properties of the newly developed M789 steel, applied in additive manufacturing. The data presented herein will bring about a broader understanding of the processing–microstructure–property–performance relationships in this material based on its chemical [...] Read more.

This research aims to characterize and examine the microstructure and mechanical properties of the newly developed M789 steel, applied in additive manufacturing. The data presented herein will bring about a broader understanding of the processing–microstructure–property–performance relationships in this material based on its chemical composition and heat treatment. Samples were printed using the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process and then the solution was annealed at 1000 °C for 1 h, followed by aging at 500 °C for soaking times of 3, 6 and 9 h. The AM components showed a relative density of 99.1%, which arose from processing with the following parameters: laser power of 200 W, laser speed of 340 mm/s, and hatch distance of 120 µm. Optical and electron microscopy observations revealed microstructural defects, typical for LPBF processes, like voids appearing between the melted pools of different sizes with round or creviced geometries, nonmelted powder particle formation inside such cavities, and small spherical porosity that was preferentially located between the molten pools. In addition, in heat-treated conditions, AM maraging steel has combined oxide inclusions of Ti and Al (TiO₂:Al₂O₃) that reside along the grain boundaries and secondary porosities; these may act as preferential zones for crack initiation and may increase the brittleness of the AM steel under aged conditions. Consequently, the elongation of the AM alloy was low (<3%) for both annealed and aged solution conditions. The tensile strength of AM M789 increased from 968 MPa (solution annealed) to 1500–1600 MPa after the aging process due to precipitation within the intermetallic η-phase. A tensile strength and yield point of 1607 ± 26 and 1617 ± 45 MPa were obtained, respectively, after a full heat treatment at 500 °C/6 h. The results show that 3 h aging of solution annealed AM M789 steel achieves satisfactory material properties in industrial practice. Extending the aging time of printed parts to 6 h yields slightly improved properties but may not be worth the effort, while long-term aging (9 h) was shown to even reduce quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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13 pages, 10152 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Microstructure, Texture, and Mechanical Properties of TZ61 and AZ61 Mg Alloys Processed by Differential Speed Rolling

by Kamil Majchrowicz, Bogusława Adamczyk-Cieślak, Witold Chromiński, Paweł Jóźwik and Zbigniew Pakieła

Materials 2022, 15(3), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030785 - 20 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2281

Abstract

In this work, the comparison of microstructure, texture, and mechanical properties of the newly developed TZ61 (Mg-6Sn-1Zn) alloy with the commercially available AZ61 (Mg-6Al-1Zn) has been presented. Both analyzed Mg alloys were processed by conventional symmetric and asymmetric rolling (i.e., Differential Speed Rolling—DSR). [...] Read more.

In this work, the comparison of microstructure, texture, and mechanical properties of the newly developed TZ61 (Mg-6Sn-1Zn) alloy with the commercially available AZ61 (Mg-6Al-1Zn) has been presented. Both analyzed Mg alloys were processed by conventional symmetric and asymmetric rolling (i.e., Differential Speed Rolling—DSR). The microstructure and texture were examined by EBSD and XRD, whereas the mechanical behavior was investigated by uniaxial tensile tests. DSR processing led to more effective grain refinement of both TZ61 and AZ61 sheets. However, a high fraction of Mg₂Sn phase precipitates in the TZ61 sheets hindered grain growth what resulted in their smaller grain size as compared to AZ61 sheets. DSR processing lowered also the basal texture intensity in the TZ61 and AZ61 sheets. A unique basal poles splitting was observed for the as-rolled TZ61 alloy, while AZ61 alloy exhibited a typical single-peak basal texture. Finally, the reduced grain size and weakened basal texture by DSR processing caused increase of plasticity of the annealed TZ61 and AZ61 sheets. Nevertheless, the annealed AZ61 sheets showed higher uniform elongation and strength (as compared to TZ61 ones), which has been attributed to their significantly lower texture intensity and greater ability to strain hardening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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15 pages, 3048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructural Evolution, Hardness, and Strengthening Mechanisms in SLM AlSi10Mg Alloy Subjected to Equal-Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP)

by Przemysław Snopiński, Anna Woźniak and Marek Pagáč

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7598; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247598 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3497

Abstract

The AlSi10Mg alloy is characterized by a high strength-to-weight ratio, good formability, and satisfying corrosion resistance; thus, it is very often used in automotive and aerospace applications. However, the main limitation of using this alloy is its low yield strength and ductility. The [...] Read more.

The AlSi10Mg alloy is characterized by a high strength-to-weight ratio, good formability, and satisfying corrosion resistance; thus, it is very often used in automotive and aerospace applications. However, the main limitation of using this alloy is its low yield strength and ductility. The equal-channel angular pressing is a processing tool that allows one to obtain ultrafine-grained or nanomaterials, with exceptional mechanical and physical properties. The purpose of the paper was to analyze the influence of the ECAP process on the structure and hardness of the AlSi10Mg alloy, obtained by the selective laser melting process. Four types of samples were examined: as-fabricated, heat-treated, and subjected to one and two ECAP passes. The microstructure analysis was performed using light and electron microscope systems (scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope). To evaluate the effect of ECAP on the mechanical properties, hardness measurements were performed. We found that the samples that underwent the ECAP process were characterized by a higher hardness than the heat-treated sample. It was also found that the ECAP processing promoted the formation of structures with semicircular patterns and multiple melt pool boundaries with a mean grain size of 0.24 μm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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15 pages, 6001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining Johnson-Cook Constitutive Equation for Low-Carbon Steel via Taylor Anvil Test

by Lenka Kunčická, Miroslav Jopek, Radim Kocich and Karel Dvořák

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4821; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174821 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2826

Abstract

Tristal steel is low-carbon construction-type steel widely used in the automotive industry, e.g., for braking components. Given the contemporary demands on the high-volume production of such components, these are typically fabricated using automatic sequential machines, which can produce components at strain rates up [...] Read more.

Tristal steel is low-carbon construction-type steel widely used in the automotive industry, e.g., for braking components. Given the contemporary demands on the high-volume production of such components, these are typically fabricated using automatic sequential machines, which can produce components at strain rates up to 10³ s⁻¹. For this reason, characterising the behaviour of the used material at high strain rates is of the utmost importance for successful industrial production. This study focuses on the characterisation of the behaviour of low-carbon steel via developing its material model using the Johnson-Cook constitutive equation. At first, the Taylor anvil test is performed. Subsequently, the acquired data together with the results of observations of structures and properties of the tested specimens are used to fill the necessary parameters into the equation. Finally, the developed equation is used to numerically simulate the Taylor anvil test and the predicted data is correlated with the experimentally acquired one. The results showed a satisfactory correlation of the experimental and predicted data; the deformed specimen region featured increased occurrence of dislocations, as well as higher hardness (its original value of 88 HV increased to more than 200 HV after testing), which corresponded to the predicted distributions of effective imposed strain and compressive stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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Review

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15 pages, 4250 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Progress on Creep Properties of ODS FeCrAl Alloys for Advanced Reactors

by Haodong Jia, Yingjie Wang, You Wang, Lu Han, Yujuan Zhang and Zhangjian Zhou

Materials 2023, 16(9), 3497; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093497 - 1 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2916

Abstract

In order to meet the growing energy demand, more environmentally friendly and efficient GEN-IV reactors have emerged. Additionally, nuclear structural materials need larger more safety margins for accident scenarios as a result of the Fukushima accident. In order to extend the failure time [...] Read more.

In order to meet the growing energy demand, more environmentally friendly and efficient GEN-IV reactors have emerged. Additionally, nuclear structural materials need larger more safety margins for accident scenarios as a result of the Fukushima accident. In order to extend the failure time and lessen the effect of accidents, this design method for accident-tolerant fuel materials calls for cladding materials to maintain good corrosion resistance and mechanical properties during a beyond design basis accident (BDBA). Accidents involving nuclear reactors would undoubtedly result in higher temperatures, which would make it much harder for materials to withstand corrosion. Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) FeCrAl alloys have shown promise as candidate materials because of their extraordinarily slow reaction rates under high-temperature steam. However, the addition of the Al element renders the alloy’s high-temperature mechanical properties insufficient. In particular, studies on the alloy’s creep properties are extremely rare, despite the fact that the creep properties are crucial in the real service environment. Therefore, this paper focuses on the creep properties of ODS FeCrAl alloy, summarizes and analyzes the research results of this material, and provides a reference for future research and applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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21 pages, 2579 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Thermal Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys—A Review

by Ailing Zhang and Yanxiang Li

Materials 2023, 16(8), 2972; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16082972 - 8 Apr 2023

Cited by 88 | Viewed by 16856

Abstract

Aluminum alloys have been extensively used as heatproof and heat-dissipation components in automotive and communication industries, and the demand for aluminum alloys with higher thermal conductivity is increasing. Therefore, this review focuses on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. First, we formulate the [...] Read more.

Aluminum alloys have been extensively used as heatproof and heat-dissipation components in automotive and communication industries, and the demand for aluminum alloys with higher thermal conductivity is increasing. Therefore, this review focuses on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. First, we formulate the theory of thermal conduction of metals and effective medium theory, and then analyze the effect of alloying elements, secondary phases, and temperature on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. Alloying elements are the most crucial factor, whose species, existing states, and mutual interactions significantly affect the thermal conductivity of aluminum. Alloying elements in a solid solution weaken the thermal conductivity of aluminum more dramatically than those in the precipitated state. The characteristics and morphology of secondary phases also affect thermal conductivity. Temperature also affects thermal conductivity by influencing the thermal conduction of electrons and phonons in aluminum alloys. Furthermore, recent studies on the effects of casting, heat treatment, and AM processes on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys are summarized, in which processes mainly affect thermal conductivity by varying existing states of alloying elements and the morphology of secondary phases. These analyses and summaries will further promote the industrial design and development of aluminum alloys with high thermal conductivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Volume II)

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