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J. Compos. Sci.
Special Issues
Thermal Behavior of Thermoset Composites
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Thermal Behavior of Thermoset Composites

A special issue of Journal of Composites Science (ISSN 2504-477X). This special issue belongs to the section "Composites Modelling and Characterization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 25231

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Mohammad Reza Saeb

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Resin and Additives, Institute for Color Science and Technology, P.O. Box 16765-654 Tehran, Iran
Interests: polymer blends; polymer composites; polymer nanocomposites; biopolymers; thermal analysis of polymer systems; thermoset composites; cure index; cure kinetics; coatings; bio-based resins
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Mehdi Ghaffari

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Polymer Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Golestan University, Gorgan 49138-15739, Iran
Interests: polymer composites; cure kinetics; coatings; corrosion; phase change materials
Dr. Maryam Jouyandeh

E-Mail
Guest Editor
Center of Excellence in Electrochemistry, School of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Interests: epoxy resin; cure index; cure kinetics; coatings; decomposition kinetics analysis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Thermoset composites are a famous class of polymers that are mainly used for their high performance in the manufacture of advanced materials and systems. In particular, thermal-dependent processing (curing/crosslinking) as the main route for the manufacture of thermoset composites on the one hand and the high thermal stability of such materials on the other underline the importance of investigating the thermal behavior of thermoset composites. The properties of thermoset systems are principally dependent on the state of crosslinking of the base resin in the presence of additives/fillers/nanoparticles. Therefore, the study of the thermal properties of this class of polymer composites for exploring network formation and for understanding the dependency of properties on crosslinking when the produced composite exposes high temperatures, loadings, and environmental stresses during service life are of critical importance. Understanding the crosslinking phenomenon of thermoset composites takes its origin in the knowledge of chemistry and the rate of reactions taking place in the course of the cure process. Besides, the transitional nature of crosslinking, where the system undergoes a phase change from an early-stage chemically controlled crosslinking to a liquid-like state, followed by the late-stage curing period which is governed by diffusion, makes the properties of thermoset composites difficult to control. The particle nature, size, shape, and surface chemistry (determined by the presence and reactivity of functional groups attached to the surface of particles) bring about more difficulties in understanding and detecting changes in the properties of such systems, even at low filler loading. On the other hand, when a thermoset resin is well-cured by additives, high tensile strength, modulus, glass transition temperature, thermal and chemical stability, mechanical properties, etc. can be obtained. Exploring and monitoring the thermal behavior of thermoset composites in the presence of fillers offers worthwhile information about the chemical reactions taking place in the cure process, and subsequently allows for structure–property association demonstration. The effect of additives on the thermal kinetics of thermoset resins and elastomers can be classified into two groups: (i) cure kinetics, which monitors the network formation; and (ii) decomposition kinetics, which provides an image of the network degradation. This Special Issue attempts to collect papers from experts on the recent progress in the thermal behavior of thermoset composites. We welcome the submission of original research papers (4000–6000 words), reviews (either short/mini-reviews (2000–3000 words) or comprehensive reviews (8000–12,000 words)), short communications (1500–2500 words), and notes (1000–1500 words) to this Special Issue, which will be considered by expert reviewers.

We are interested in manuscripts addressing topics including but not limited to the following:

  • Development of thermoset composites and nanocomposites;
  • Thermal and rheological properties of thermoset composites and nanocomposites;
  • Cure behavior of thermoset composites and nanocomposites;
  • Structure–property relationships in thermoset composites;
  • Thermal degradation behavior of thermoset composites and nanocomposites;
  • Flame-retardant properties of thermoset composites and nanocomposites;
  • Modelling thermal behavior and kinetics of thermoset composites and nanocomposites

Dr. Mohammad Reza Saeb
Dr. Mehdi Ghaffari
Dr. Maryam Jouyandeh
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Composites Science is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Polymer composites
  • Polymer nanocomposites
  • Thermoset resins
  • Epoxy
  • Polyester
  • Polyurethane
  • Elastomers and rubbers
  • Compounding
  • Coatings
  • Cure index
  • Cure kinetics
  • Thermal behavior
  • Thermal decomposition kinetics
  • Isoconversional methods
  • Modeling
  • Recycling
  • Green composites
  • Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
  • Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 5455 KiB  
Article
Influence of a Dynamic Consolidation Force on In Situ Consolidation Quality of Thermoplastic Composite Laminate
by Berend Denkena, Carsten Schmidt, Maximilian Kaczemirzk and Max Schwinn
J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(3), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5030088 - 22 Mar 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3462
Abstract
For achieving high quality of in situ consolidation in thermoplastic Automated Fiber Placement, an approach is presented in this research work. The approach deals with the combination of material pre-heating and sub-ultrasonic vibration treatment. Therefore, this research work investigates the influence of frequency [...] Read more.
For achieving high quality of in situ consolidation in thermoplastic Automated Fiber Placement, an approach is presented in this research work. The approach deals with the combination of material pre-heating and sub-ultrasonic vibration treatment. Therefore, this research work investigates the influence of frequency dependent consolidation pressure on the consolidation quality. A simplified experimental setup was developed that uses resistance electrical heating instead of the laser to establish the thermal consolidation condition in a universal testing machine. Consolidation experiments with frequencies up to 1 kHz were conducted. The manufactured specimens are examined using laser scanning microscopy to evaluate the bonding interface and differential scanning calorimetry to evaluate the degree of crystallinity. Additionally, the vibration-assisted specimens were compared to specimens manufactured with static consolidation pressure only. As a result of the experimental study, the interlaminar pore fraction and degree of compaction show a positive dependency to higher frequencies. The porosity decreases from 0.60% to 0.13% while the degree of compaction increases from 8.64% to 12.49% when increasing the vibration frequency up to 1 kHz. The differential scanning calorimetry experiments show that the crystallinity of the matrix is not affected by vibration-assisted consolidation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Thermoset Composites)
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19 pages, 4052 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Study on Cure Kinetics of Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH)/Epoxy Nanocomposites
by Zohre Karami, Seyed Mohammad Reza Paran, Poornima Vijayan P., Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Maryam Jouyandeh, Amin Esmaeili, Sajjad Habibzadeh, Florian J. Stadler and Mohammad Reza Saeb
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4(3), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs4030111 - 9 Aug 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3890
Abstract
Layered double hydroxide (LDH) minerals are promising candidates for developing polymer nanocomposites and the exchange of intercalating anions and metal ions in the LDH structure considerably affects their ultimate properties. Despite the fact that the synthesis of various kinds of LDHs has been [...] Read more.
Layered double hydroxide (LDH) minerals are promising candidates for developing polymer nanocomposites and the exchange of intercalating anions and metal ions in the LDH structure considerably affects their ultimate properties. Despite the fact that the synthesis of various kinds of LDHs has been the subject of numerous studies, the cure kinetics of LDH-based thermoset polymer composites has rarely been investigated. Herein, binary and ternary structures, including [Mg0.75 Al0.25 (OH)2]0.25+ [(CO32−)0.25/2∙m H2O]0.25−, [Mg0.75 Al0.25 (OH)2]0.25+ [(NO3−)0.25∙m H2O]0.25− and [Mg0.64 Zn0.11 Al0.25 (OH)2]0.25+ [(CO32−)0.25/2∙m H2O]0.25−, have been incorporated into epoxy to study the cure kinetics of the resulting nanocomposites by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Both integral and differential isoconversional methods serve to study the non-isothermal curing reactions of epoxy nanocomposites. The effects of carbonate and nitrate ions as intercalating agents on the cure kinetics are also discussed. The activation energy of cure (Eα) was calculated based on the Friedman and Kissinger–Akahira–Sunose (KAS) methods for epoxy/LDH nanocomposites. The order of autocatalytic reaction (m) for the epoxy/Mg-Al-NO3 (0.30 and 0.254 calculated by the Friedman and KAS methods, respectively) was smaller than that of the neat epoxy, which suggested a shift of the curing mechanism from an autocatalytic to noncatalytic reaction. Moreover, a higher frequency factor for the aforementioned nanocomposite suggests that the incorporation of Mg-Al-NO3 in the epoxy composite improved the curability of the epoxy. The results elucidate that the intercalating anions and the metal constituent of LDH significantly govern the cure kinetics of epoxy by the participation of nitrate anions in the epoxide ring-opening reaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Thermoset Composites)
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24 pages, 5939 KiB  
Article
Thermal Analysis of Crosslinking Reactions in Epoxy Nanocomposites Containing Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)-Functionalized Nickel-Doped Nano-Fe3O4
by Maryam Jouyandeh, Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Zohre Karami, Morteza Rezapour, Babak Bagheri, Payam Zarrintaj, Arash Mouradzadegun, Sajjad Habibzadeh and Mohammad Reza Saeb
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4(3), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs4030107 - 5 Aug 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3688
Abstract
This work reports on the thermal analysis of epoxy containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) surface-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles (PVC–S/MNP) and its bulk-modified nickel-doped counterpart (PVC–S/MNP/Bi–B). Nanoparticles were synthesized through the cathodic electro-deposition method. The morphology of particles was imaged on a field-emission scanning electron microscope [...] Read more.
This work reports on the thermal analysis of epoxy containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) surface-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles (PVC–S/MNP) and its bulk-modified nickel-doped counterpart (PVC–S/MNP/Bi–B). Nanoparticles were synthesized through the cathodic electro-deposition method. The morphology of particles was imaged on a field-emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM), while X-ray diffraction analysis and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to detect changes in the structure of nanoparticles. The magnetic behavior of particles was also studied by vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM). In particular, we focused on the effect of the bulk (Ni-doping) and surface (PVC-capping) modifications of MNPs on the thermal crosslinking of epoxy using nonisothermal differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) varying the heating rate. The cure labels of the prepared nanocomposites were assigned to them, as quantified by the cure index. The good cure state was assigned to the system containing PVC–S/MNP/Bi–B as a result of excessive ring opening of epoxy. Cure kinetics parameters of PVC–S/MNP/Bi–B incorporated epoxy was obtained by the use of isoconversional methodology. The activation energy of epoxy was decreased upon addition of 0.1 wt% of PVC–S/MNP/Bi–B due to the reaction of Cl− of PVC by the functional groups of resin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Thermoset Composites)
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12 pages, 1924 KiB  
Communication
Effect of Nickel Doping on the Cure Kinetics of Epoxy/Fe3O4 Nanocomposites
by Maryam Jouyandeh, Zohre Karami, Seyed Mohammad Reza Paran, Amin Hamed Mashhadzadeh, Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Babak Bagheri, Payam Zarrintaj, Sajjad Habibzadeh, Poornima Vijayan P. and Mohammad Reza Saeb
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4(3), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs4030102 - 30 Jul 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3074
Abstract
This short communication aims to evaluate the cure kinetics of epoxy/NixFe3−xO4 nanocomposites. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) provided support for cure kinetics analysis based on the variation of activation energy (Eα) as a function of the extent [...] Read more.
This short communication aims to evaluate the cure kinetics of epoxy/NixFe3−xO4 nanocomposites. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) provided support for cure kinetics analysis based on the variation of activation energy (Eα) as a function of the extent of crosslinking reaction, α. The average values of Eα calculated based on Kissinger and Friedman methods were 59.22 and 57.35 kJ/mol for the neat epoxy, 43.37 and 48.74 kJ/mol for the epoxy/Fe3O4, and eventually 50.48 and 49.19 kJ/mol for the epoxy/NixFe3−xO4 nanocomposites. The partial replacement of Fe2+ ion sites in the Fe3O4 crystal lattice by the Ni2+ ions changed to some content the cure kinetic profile because of the fact that a lower level of energy was needed for curing by incorporation of NixFe3−xO4 into the epoxy matrix. The rate of reaction calculated theoretically adequately fitted with experimental profiles obtained in DSC experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Thermoset Composites)
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20 pages, 6270 KiB  
Article
Nonisothermal Cure Kinetics of Epoxy/Polyvinylpyrrolidone Functionalized Superparamagnetic Nano-Fe3O4 Composites: Effect of Zn and Mn Doping
by Maryam Jouyandeh, Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Farzad Seidi, Huining Xiao and Mohammad Reza Saeb
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs4020055 - 18 May 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2798
Abstract
The effects of the bulk and surface modification of nanoparticles on the cure kinetics of low-filled epoxy nanocomposites containing electrochemically synthesized polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) functionalized superparamagnetic iron oxide (PVP-SPIO), Zn-doped PVP-SPIO (Zn-PVP-SPIO), and Mn-doped PVP-SPIO (Mn-PVP-SPIO) were studied using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and [...] Read more.
The effects of the bulk and surface modification of nanoparticles on the cure kinetics of low-filled epoxy nanocomposites containing electrochemically synthesized polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) functionalized superparamagnetic iron oxide (PVP-SPIO), Zn-doped PVP-SPIO (Zn-PVP-SPIO), and Mn-doped PVP-SPIO (Mn-PVP-SPIO) were studied using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and cure kinetics analyses. Integral and differential isoconversional methods were used to calculate the activation energies (Eα) and consequently propose the appropriate reaction model for the curing reaction under nonisothermal conditions. According to the alteration of Eα versus the fractional extent of conversion, the Eα trend was changed through the partial replacement of Fe2+ sites by the Zn2+ and Mn2+ cations in the general formula of MxFe3-xO4, due to smaller amounts of energy being required for curing by the incorporation of Zn-PVP-SPIO and Mn-PVP-SPIO nanoparticles into the epoxy resin. A good agreement was observed between the theoretical calculation and the observed calorimetric data for the model validation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Thermoset Composites)
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Review

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44 pages, 9992 KiB  
Review
Recent Progress in the Study of Thermal Properties and Tribological Behaviors of Hexagonal Boron Nitride-Reinforced Composites
by Maryam Khalaj, Sanaz Zarabi Golkhatmi, Sayed Ali Ahmad Alem, Kahila Baghchesaraee, Mahdi Hasanzadeh Azar and Shayan Angizi
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4(3), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs4030116 - 14 Aug 2020
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 7232
Abstract
Ever-increasing significance of composite materials with high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion coefficient and high optical bandgap over the last decade, have proved their indispensable roles in a wide range of applications. Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), a layered material having a high thermal [...] Read more.
Ever-increasing significance of composite materials with high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion coefficient and high optical bandgap over the last decade, have proved their indispensable roles in a wide range of applications. Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), a layered material having a high thermal conductivity along the planes and the band gap of 5.9 eV, has always been a promising candidate to provide superior heat transfer with minimal phonon scattering through the system. Hence, extensive researches have been devoted to improving the thermal conductivity of different matrices by using h-BN fillers. Apart from that, lubrication property of h-BN has also been extensively researched, demonstrating the effectivity of this layered structure in reduction of friction coefficient, increasing wear resistance and cost-effectivity of the process. Herein, an in-depth discussion of thermal and tribological properties of the reinforced composite by h-BN will be provided, focusing on the recent progress and future trends. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Thermoset Composites)
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