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A special issue of Horticulturae (ISSN 2311-7524). This special issue belongs to the section "Vegetable Production Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2025) | Viewed by 19723

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Dr. Sergio Argento

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CNR-ICB National Council of Research, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Via Paolo Gaifami n. 18, 95126 Catania, Italy
Interests: horticultural and flower crops; agroecosystems and environment; sustainable development of agronomy; sustainability, biodiversity and ecosystem services of cultivation systems for bioenergy; breeding and cultivation systems
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The cultivation of vegetables in greenhouses within a Mediterranean environment has traditionally been associated with rudimental structures characterized by reduced light transmittance, poor ventilation, and significant daily temperature fluctuations. Within this context characterized by inadequate facilities and a limited technological level, extensive manual labor is required, exhibiting low productivity levels (PLV) and frequently suffering from limited access to quality irrigation water, often high in salinity. Nowadays, these rudimentary structures are replaced by others with a level of cutting-edge technology and very high production performance, managing environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, CO₂ concentration, light intensity, and duration. This shift towards advanced cropping systems reflects a broader transformation in controlled environment horticulture, with a special emphasis on inclusive approaches.

This up-coming Special Issue aims to comprehensively address the diverse facets of advanced cropping systems in the production of vegetables. We invite submissions that span a wide array of contexts, encompassing both product and process innovation. Emphasis will be placed on addressing contemporary challenges, including but not limited to climate change, the efficient use of resources, and the adoption of sustainable production practices that ensure high-quality vegetable products. Authors are encouraged to explore and present their research within the evolving landscape of controlled environment horticulture, providing insights into how these advancements address ongoing challenges. This Special Issue serves as a platform to showcase groundbreaking contributions that contribute to the evolution of vegetable production systems in response to the dynamic factors influencing modern agriculture.

Dr. Sergio Argento
Guest Editor

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Keywords

crop productivity
product quality
sustainable production practices
efficient use of resources

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 3372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application Rates on Plant Growth and Yield of Organic Kale and Swiss Chard in Vertical Farming System

by Andruw Jones, Sai Prakash Naroju, Dilip Nandwani, Anthony Witcher and Shahidullah Chowdhary

Horticulturae 2025, 11(7), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070827 - 11 Jul 2025

Viewed by 397

Abstract

To support the growing global population, sustainable farming methods like vertical farming must complement traditional agriculture. This study evaluated the effects of various nitrogen fertilizer application rates (N_low (1055.3 ppm), N_rec (1640.9 ppm), N_high (2811.3 ppm), and N_0 (469.9 ppm)) on organic kale (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala ‘Lacinato’) and Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. Vulgaris ‘Ruby/Rhubarb Red’), grown in a vertical growing system installed in a high tunnel during the spring and fall season of 2023 at the organic farm of Tennessee State University. Growth parameters studied included fresh weight, Brix, chlorophyll, plant height, and leaf count. Most parameters did not exhibit statistically significant differences (alpha = 0.05). However, consistent numerical trends and deviations were observed. Although not statistically significant, kale achieved the highest mean fresh weight in N_rec (688.08 g), and Swiss chard in N_high by spring (649.62 g). Among the few parameters, significant differences were observed for Swiss chard plant height (48.07 cm) and leaf count (47.25), with N_high during fall. Findings suggest that while definitive conclusions were limited, recommended nitrogen rates (N_rec) may enhance crop performance and contribute sustainable yields in resource constrained vertical farming systems. Further controlled studies are warranted to validate trends and refine nutrient strategies in vertical growing system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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17 pages, 4530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on High-Accuracy, Lightweight, Superfast Model for Nitrogen Diagnosis and Plant Growth in Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)

by Xuyang Li, Iftikhar Hussain Shah, Xiaohao Gong, Muhammad Azam, Wu Jinhui, Pengli Li, Yidong Zhang, Qingliang Niu and Liying Chang

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050451 - 22 Apr 2025

Viewed by 610

Abstract

Nitrogen is a crucial environmental factor influencing lettuce growth, development, and quality formation. This study aimed to determine the relationship between plant growth, nutritional quality formation, and different nitrogen levels of lettuce. A machine learning approach was also applied to data collected from RGB and hyperspectral imaging systems. Traditional methods for nitrogen diagnosis in lettuce, such as laboratory-based analysis of plant samples, are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and lack real-time monitoring capabilities. In contrast, the deep learning models used in this research can make full use of the original data from imaging systems. Nondestructive techniques have the ability to handle complex relationships in the data, enabling more accurate and efficient nitrogen diagnosis. Collected spectral features were combined with chemometrics, and a lettuce nitrogen regression diagnostic model was trained. Furthermore, lettuce crop growth was assessed using a model development of environmental and plant physiological parameters. Additionally, nitrogen fertilization was precisely assessed using developed models. Lettuce cultivation experiments under different nitrogen levels showed the best physiological and biochemical indicators performance when the nitrogen concentration reached 18.75 mmol·L⁻¹. Using machine learning with hyperspectral reflectance in nitrogen diagnostics, random forest showed excellent performance with the highest R², MSE, and MAE of 0.7012, 8.940, and 2.1859, respectively. ShuffleNet-v2-1.0 obtained a high R² of 0.9592, MSE of 132.9974, and MAE of 8.1430 regarding transfer learning and hyperspectral images. Applying the transfer learning technique in RGB images exhibited EfficientNet-v2-s, the best model for precise determination of nitrogen diagnostics, with R² of 0.9859, MSE of 24.0755, and MAE of 2.3433. Current research comprehensively provides both a theoretical basis and practical solutions for precision nitrogen fertilization in lettuce cultivation. Its implications hold significance for the intelligent management of horticultural crop production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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18 pages, 280 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Ergothioneine Biosynthesis and Antioxidant Activity in Agaricus spp. Through Amino Acid Supplementation and Yeast–Peptone Mixtures

by Hojat Ghahremani-majd, Hasan Mumivand, Parisa Khanizadeh, Fatemeh Bakhshipoor and Sergio Argento

Horticulturae 2025, 11(4), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11040348 - 23 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1415

Abstract

With increasing demand for antioxidant-rich foods, research has focused on cost-effective methods to produce natural antioxidants. Mushrooms, especially Agaricus species, are rich in bioactive compounds like ergothioneine, a potent antioxidant. Ergothioneine has been shown to offer significant health benefits, such as protecting against oxidative stress, cardiovascular diseases, and premature aging. This study explores the effects of amino acid supplementation (methionine, cysteine, and histidine) and yeast–peptone mixtures on ergothioneine production, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, and growth rate in various Agaricus species; this was conducted through two distinct experiments within a completely randomized design. In the first experiment, 13 treatment combinations were tested, involving varying concentrations of individual amino acids (methionine, cysteine, and histidine) at 0.5, 1, and 2 mM, as well as their combined concentrations (0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5, 1 + 1 + 1, and 2 + 2 + 2 mM), compared to a control (no amino acids). The second experiment tested yeast extract and peptone mixtures at seven concentrations: control (no supplementation), yeast (2 and 4 g/L), peptone (2 and 4 g/L), and combinations of yeast and peptone (2 + 2 and 4 + 4 g/L). Results revealed that supplementation with amino acids at 1 + 1 + 1 mM significantly enhanced ergothioneine content and antioxidant activity, though it resulted in decreased growth rates. In contrast, lower concentrations of amino acids (0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 mM) increased ergothioneine production, with minimal impact on growth. Yeast and peptone supplementation at 2 + 2 g/L yielded the highest ergothioneine content, antioxidant activity, and growth rates across all Agaricus species tested. The most effective combination for maximizing ergothioneine production, antioxidant activity, and growth was found to be 0.5 mM of methionine, cysteine, and histidine, combined with 2 g/L of yeast extract and 2 g/L of peptone. Agaricus bitorquis (Quél.) Sacc. emerged as a promising candidate for ergothioneine production due to its genetic potential and metabolic efficiency. However, the strong responsiveness of Agaricus bisporus (white) to optimized culture conditions offers a viable alternative to A. bitorquis, which may require more complex and costly cultivation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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13 pages, 2241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tailored Spectral Lighting Enhances Growth and Photosynthetic Efficiency of Wasabia japonica

by Sunghwan Bae, Hyoseong Ahn, Minha Kim, Sangun Park and Yongduk Kim

Horticulturae 2025, 11(2), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11020162 - 3 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1384

Abstract

This study evaluated the effects of various supplemental lighting conditions on the growth and rhizome production of Wasabia japonica, a high-value crop. Its cultivation poses challenges due to specific environmental requirements, including cool temperatures and high humidity. By tailoring light spectra, we aimed to optimize photosynthetic efficiency and biomass accumulation. Seedlings (cv. ST1) were grown in a controlled plant factory (18 ± 2 °C, 90 ± 5% RH) using a Yamazaki tri-leaf nutrient solution (EC 1.5–2.0 dS/m, pH 5.8–6.8). Lighting was designed to convert blue (450 nm) to red (630–680 nm) wavelengths at 70–40% ratios, maintaining a photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 50 ± 5 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ during a 12 h photoperiod. In the greenhouse, supplemental lighting (40% blue-to-red conversion) was applied for 4 h daily to complement natural light. After 140 days, the optimized 40% blue-to-red conversion lighting significantly improved plant length (34.4 cm), leaf length (15.3 cm), and photosynthetic rates (2.21 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹). When tested in the greenhouse, it increased rhizome fresh weight to 75.6 g compared to 30.0 g under natural light. These results indicate that supplemental lighting with specific spectral ratios and controlled intensities can enhance photosynthesis and rhizome production, providing a sustainable approach to wasabi cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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27 pages, 4866 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) Fruit Metabolomics Under Elevated CO₂ and High-Temperature Stress in the Greenhouse

by Xian Du, Yang Song, Lu Pan and Shimao Cui

Horticulturae 2025, 11(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11010010 - 26 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1320

Abstract

Elevated carbon dioxide concentrations can mitigate the significant threats of high-temperature stress to the yield and quality of cucumber fruit during summer. This study aims to elucidate the response mechanisms of cucumber fruit metabolomics under elevated CO₂ and high-temperature stress while also exploring the potential benefits of elevated CO₂ in mitigating the adverse effects of high temperatures. The fruits of the experimental material cucumber (Cucumis sativus L., ’Jinyou 35’) were grown under soil conditions in the greenhouse. We used untargeted metabolomics methods to analyze the effects of varying temperatures (normal temperatures of 25 to 35 °C and high temperatures of 35 to 45 °C) and CO₂ concentrations (400 ± 20 µmol/mol and 1200 ± 20 µmol/mol) on the morpho-physiological traits, yield-associated traits, and metabolomic profiles of cucumber fruits. The results showed that, under high-temperature stress, elevated carbon dioxide concentrations altered 27 differential metabolites, including tyramine, xylitol, linolenic acid, L-asparagine, α-linolenic acid, and L-phenylalanine. These alterations are associated with the metabolic pathways of alanine, aspartate, glutamate, glutathione, glyoxylate, and dicarboxylic acids. Compared to adding carbon dioxide at normal temperatures, elevated carbon dioxide at high temperatures modified 38 differential metabolites, including vitamin B6, L-citrulline, inositol, L-aspartic acid, sucrose, and palmitic acid. These modifications were linked to the galactose metabolic pathway and the zeatin and arginine biosynthetic pathways. The accumulation of cysteine, glutamic acid, and glycine is essential to form the antioxidant glutathione; thus, cucumber fruits with a higher amino acid content exhibit an enhanced capacity to withstand severe high-temperature stress. Under high-temperature conditions, elevated carbon dioxide adds complexity to changes in differential metabolites within cucumber fruits. These fruits accumulate sugars, organic acids, and amino acids through the galactose metabolism pathway (map00052), the arginine biosynthesis pathway (map00220), and the glutamate synthesis pathway (map00250), thereby improving their heat resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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13 pages, 262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of PAW on the Lettuce Growth and Formation of the Secondary Metabolites in Different Growing Conditions

by Nataša Romanjek Fajdetić, Mihaela Blažinkov, Ljiljana Božić Ostojić, Krunoslav Mirosavljević, Slavica Antunović, Iva Knezović, Robert Benković, Petra Sviličić and Teuta Benković Lačić

Horticulturae 2024, 10(12), 1367; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121367 - 19 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1112

Abstract

The aim of this paper was to find out if PAW (plasma-activated water) irrigation treatment might have a positive influence on morphological parameters (number of leaves, head mass, rosette height, rosette width, and dry matter), microelements and macroelements content, and the formation of secondary metabolites (phenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, antioxidant activity, and proline). Watering in two treatments (PAW 1 (150 mL added per watering) and PAW 2 (300 mL added per watering)) were completed four times. The experiment was conducted in inside and outside growing conditions. As a result of the experiment, it was established that PAW treatment had a positive effect on morphological parameters, nitrogen content, and the content of phenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, antioxidant activity, and proline. In addition, it was discovered that growing in inside conditions for PAW 1 treatment gave 61.43% better results in mass in relation to outside conditions. Regarding the PAW 2 treatment, the results showed that the mass in inside conditions was 66.30% higher than in outside conditions. Comparing PAW 1 and PAW 2 treatment, it was found that PAW 2 treatment gave 6% more mass than plants under PAW 1 treatment. It can be concluded that there was a positive effect of PAW treatment on morphological parameters in relation to the control, but there was no significant difference between the treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

14 pages, 1388 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of CO₂ Enrichment on Growth, Yield and Fruit Quality of F1 Hybrid Strawberry Grown under Controlled Greenhouse Condition

by Mohamed Osman, Muein Qaryouti, Saif Alharbi, Budour Alghamdi, Abdulrahman Al-Soqeer, Abdulaziz Alharbi, Khalid Almutairi and Mohamed Ewis Abdelaziz

Horticulturae 2024, 10(9), 941; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090941 - 2 Sep 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2868

Abstract

Carbon dioxide enrichment inside a greenhouse is a sustainable approach to increasing crop production worldwide. Recently, the F1 hybrid strawberry became an alternative to runner-propagated cultivation as an innovative method to shorten the production period and increase strawberry production. This work aims to present CO₂ enrichment as a sustainable tool that improves the yield in a controlled greenhouse and addresses the efficiency of three F1 hybrid strawberry varieties grown under Saudi Arabian conditions. A greenhouse experiment was conducted at the National Research and Development Center for Sustainable Agriculture (Estidamah), KSA, to study the impact of two CO₂ levels (400 ppm (“ambient”) and 600 ppm (“enrichment”)) on the growth, photosynthesis traits, fruit yield and fruit quality of three F1 hybrid strawberry varieties grown under soilless culture conditions. The results show that CO₂ enrichment significantly improved the phenotyping of strawberry growth traits at 60 days post-transplanting. The physiological response of the varieties to CO₂ enrichment reveals a significant increase in the photosynthetic rate (129.7%) and intercellular CO₂ (43.7%) in the leaves of strawberry exposed to CO₂ enrichment rather than in ambient conditions, combined with a significant increase in the number of fruits per plant (27.5%) and total fruit yield (42.2%). A similar pattern was observed with varieties D and S in terms of fruit number, length and diameter. However, CO₂ at 600 ppm promoted total soluble solid accumulation and vitamin C for the tested varieties. In contrast, CO₂ enrichment significantly decreased nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium accumulation in the leaves of the exposed plants in comparison to 400 ppm of CO₂. These results suggest that increasing CO₂ enrichment could contribute to an increase in strawberry yield and nutritional value and demonstrate that understanding the response of each variety to CO₂ enrichment is important to support selecting suitable greenhouse strawberry varieties to improve crop yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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24 pages, 4864 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Fertigation Scheduling Methods on the Yields and Photosynthetic Parameters of Drip-Fertigated Chinese Chive (Allium tuberosum) Grown in a Horticultural Greenhouse

by Koichi Nomura, Eriko Wada, Masahiko Saito, Shuji Itokawa, Keisuke Mizobuchi, Hiromi Yamasaki, Ikunao Tada, Tadashige Iwao, Tomihiro Yamazaki and Masaharu Kitano

Horticulturae 2024, 10(8), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10080794 - 27 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1146

Abstract

This study investigated the performance of four different fertigation scheduling methods in greenhouse-grown, drip-fertigated Chinese chive (Allium tuberosum) cultivation. These methods were based on (1) the use of a timer (control), (2) accumulated radiation (AR), (3) estimated evapotranspiration (ET), and (4) measured soil moisture (SM), with fertilizer application proportional to the supplied water. These methods caused considerable variations in the amount of fertigation water (I), soil volumetric water content (θ), and bulk soil electrical conductivity, leading to variations in the harvested fresh weight (FW). The SM-based method maintained the target θ and achieved the highest irrigation water productivity (WP; the ratio of FW to ΣI), while the ET-based method led to insufficient I and FW loss. The AR-based method over-fertigated, but no FW loss was observed. Compared to the WP of the control, those of the SM-, ET-, and AR-based methods varied by +1%, −14%, and −57%, respectively. Different fertigation methods did not significantly affect leaf photosynthetic capacity, but under-fertigation caused a significant decline in stomatal conductance. Compared to the ET- and AR-based methods, the SM-based method seemed to have a lower risk of under-/over-fertigation because I in the SM-based method could be adjusted according to θ. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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14 pages, 13404 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Resilient Response to Combined Heat and Drought Stress Conditions of a Tomato Germplasm Collection, Including Natural and Ethyl Methanesulfonate-Induced Variants

by Rocío Fonseca, Rosa Micol-Ponce, Carmen V. Ozuna, Laura Castañeda, Carmen Capel, Antonia Fernández-Lozano, Ana Ortiz-Atienza, Sandra Bretones, José M. Pérez-Jiménez, Abraham S. Quevedo-Colmena, Juan D. López-Fábregas, Teresa Barragán-Lozano, Ricardo Lebrón, Celia Faura, Juan Capel, Trinidad Angosto, Isabel Egea, Fernando J. Yuste-Lisbona and Rafael Lozano

Horticulturae 2024, 10(6), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10060552 - 24 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2393

Abstract

Agricultural systems are currently facing significant issues, primarily due to population growth rates in the context of global climate change. Rising temperatures cause plant heat stress and impact crop yield, which in turn compromises global food production and safety. Climate change is also having a significant impact on water availability around the world, and droughts are becoming more frequent and severe in many regions. The combined effect of both heat and drought stresses increases plant damage, resulting in reduced plant development and productivity loss. Therefore, developing heat–drought-tolerant crop varieties is crucial for enhancing yield under these challenging conditions. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), a major vegetable crop highly appreciated for its nutritional qualities, is particularly sensitive to extreme temperatures, which have a significant negative impact on tomato fruit setting and cause male gametophyte abortion. In this work, a classical genetic approach was employed to identify tomato genotypes showing a resilient response to combined heat and drought stress conditions. A phenotype screening of a natural germplasm collection and an ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) mutagenized population resulted in the identification of a significant number of tomato lines tolerant to combined heat and drought conditions, specifically 161 EMS lines and 24 natural accessions as tolerant. In addition, TILLING and Eco-TILLING analyses were used as proof-of-concept to isolate new genetic variants of genes previously reported as key regulators of abiotic stress responses in different species. The identification of these variants holds the potential to provide suitable plant material for breeding programs focused on enhancing tomato resilience to adverse climate conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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18 pages, 2088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Light Intensity and Photoperiod on Morphological Development and Photosynthetic Characteristics of Coriander

by Fang Wang, Qi Gao, Guangsi Ji, Jingxuan Wang, Yifeng Ding and Sen Wang

Horticulturae 2024, 10(3), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10030215 - 24 Feb 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3328

Abstract

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is prized for its aroma and medicinal properties and is extensively employed in various cuisines. Light intensity and photoperiod greatly impact its phenological development. The application of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in facility cultivation systems enables precise control of lighting conditions, leading to enhanced energy efficiency in coriander cultivation. This study investigated three levels of light intensity (133, 200, and 400 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹) and three photoperiods (8L/16D, 16L/8D, and 24L) to comprehensively assess their effects on coriander’s morphological development, photosynthetic characteristics, and energy utilization efficiency. The objective was to identify a combination conducive to efficient and energy-saving coriander cultivation in PFALs. Results indicated that high light intensity (400 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹) with continuous lighting (24L) reduces coriander’s photosynthetic capacity, while 24-h of continuous lighting can boost yield at the expense of energy efficiency. An 8-h photoperiod significantly decreases the yield compared to 16 h. Low light intensity inhibits plant development, indicating that 133 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ is suboptimal. For optimal efficiency and yield, a light intensity of 200 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ and a 16-h photoperiod are recommended in coriander PFAL cultivation. These findings advocate for the adoption of these specific conditions for the indoor cultivation of coriander within PFAL systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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26 pages, 3609 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Sustainable and Low-Input Techniques in Mediterranean Greenhouse Vegetable Production

by Sergio Argento, Gresheen Garcia and Simone Treccarichi

Horticulturae 2024, 10(9), 997; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090997 - 20 Sep 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2216

Abstract

In the modern agricultural landscape, numerous challenges, such as climate change, diminishing arable lands, and the reduction of water resources, represent significant threats. The Mediterranean greenhouse farming model relies on low-input strategies to maximize both yield and quality. Its protected horticulture is essential for the year-round cultivation of high-value crops, ensuring efficient and sustainable production. In the realm of future agricultural strategies, leveraging internet-based approaches emerges as a pivotal factor for real-time and remote control of various agricultural parameters crucial for crop growth and development. This approach has the potential to significantly optimize agronomic inputs, thereby enhancing the efficiency of targeted vegetable production. The aim of the present review is to underscore the challenges related to the intensive greenhouse production systems emphasizing various strategies leading to low-input greenhouse vegetable production. The goal is to promote more sustainable and resource-efficient approaches in the cultivation of greenhouse vegetables. This review highlights several key strategies for optimizing the greenhouse environment, including efficient water management through conservation tillage, drainage water reuse, and selecting the most appropriate irrigation systems and timing. Additionally, light modulation and temperature control—using solar energy for heating and pad-and-fan systems for cooling—are crucial for enhancing both crop performance and resource efficiency. The review also explores low-input agronomical strategies, such as pest and disease control—including solarization and optimized integrated pest management (IPM)—as well as fertilization and advanced growing techniques. These approaches are essential for sustainable greenhouse farming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production in Controlled Environment)

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