Gels | Special Issue : Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels (3rd Edition)

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23 pages, 8532 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Characterization of Bacterial Cellulose–Polyvinyl Alcohol Composite Hydrogels Using ZnCl₂ Hydrates as Solvent

by Woradej Pichaiaukrit, Theerapat Chanamuangkon, Sujin Chumprasert, Pannagorn Sae-ear, Pichit Boonkrong, Anuchan Panaksri and Nuttapol Tanadchangsaeng

Gels 2026, 12(3), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030203 - 28 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is highly valued for biomedical and industrial applications due to its exceptional biocompatibility, strength, and biodegradability. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) exhibits favorable characteristics, making it an ideal candidate for hydrogel formulation. In this study, BC–PVA composite hydrogels were synthesized by dissolving [...] Read more.

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is highly valued for biomedical and industrial applications due to its exceptional biocompatibility, strength, and biodegradability. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) exhibits favorable characteristics, making it an ideal candidate for hydrogel formulation. In this study, BC–PVA composite hydrogels were synthesized by dissolving 1% w/w BC in ZnCl₂ 3H₂O and 10% w/w PVA in ZnCl₂nH₂O, n = 6, 9, 12, and 15. These solutions were combined at BC:PVA weight ratios of 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3, then crosslinking using a glutaraldehyde–acetone solution before immersion in deionized water. The resulting hydrogels exhibited a dense, tightly packed structure with mild to moderate porosity. FTIR analysis confirmed molecular interactions via a broad, reduced O–H stretching band and the appearance of C-H bending vibrations. The water content and swelling ratio ranged from 88.13% to 94.67% and 437.93% to 997.22%, respectively. At a compressive strain of 30%, the compressive strength ranged from 62.28 kPa to 93.16 kPa. This work introduces a novel and efficient method for preparing BC-PVA hydrogels using ZnCl₂ hydrate solvents. Both the ZnCl₂ hydration level and the BC:PVA ratio significantly influenced the structural, water content, swelling, and mechanical properties, offering tunable materials for biomedical or industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels (3rd Edition))

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21 pages, 7692 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Chitin–Glucan Complex Aerogel from Mycelium Waste with Tunable Properties

by A. M. Abdel-Mohsen, Katerina Skotnicova, Rasha M. Abdel-Rahman and Josef Jancar

Gels 2026, 12(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12010041 - 1 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Chitin–glucan complex (CGC) is a naturally occurring heteropolysaccharide in which chitin chains are covalently integrated with β-glucans, forming a rigid structural framework in fungal and yeast cell walls. CGC exhibits a broad spectrum of functional properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, adsorption, and tissue-regenerative activities; [...] Read more.

Chitin–glucan complex (CGC) is a naturally occurring heteropolysaccharide in which chitin chains are covalently integrated with β-glucans, forming a rigid structural framework in fungal and yeast cell walls. CGC exhibits a broad spectrum of functional properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, adsorption, and tissue-regenerative activities; however, its technological exploitation has been severely constrained by its intrinsic insolubility in water and most common solvents. In this work, CGC was isolated from Aspergillus niger mycelial biomass and, for the first time, completely dissolved in a precooled aqueous NaOH/urea solvent system (12 wt.% NaOH, 8 wt.% urea) within 5 min at ambient temperature, yielding a clear and stable solution. The influence of alkali concentration on dissolution efficiency and solution stability was systematically examined. Structural integrity and covalent linkage between chitin/chitosan and glucan segments were confirmed using FTIR spectroscopy, two-dimensional NMR, and electron microscopy. The degree of deacetylation determined by NMR was approximately 25%. Rheological analysis revealed concentration- and temperature-dependent sol–gel transitions, with well-defined storage and loss moduli during gelation. Crosslinking with epichlorohydrin enabled the fabrication of lightweight, highly porous three-dimensional CGC aerogels. In vitro cytocompatibility studies using NIH 3T3 fibroblasts demonstrated no detectable cytotoxicity over 72 h. These results establish a green, efficient route for CGC dissolution and processing and highlight the promise of CGC aerogels as sustainable biomaterials for biomedical and environmental applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels (3rd Edition))

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26 pages, 5740 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Durian Rind Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Poly(vinyl) Alcohol Hydrogels Synthesis for Enhancing Crosslinking and Release Kinetics Efficiency

by Kanticha Pratinthong, Rangsan Panyathip, Sarinthip Thanakkasaranee, Kittisak Jantanasakulwong, Wirongrong Tongdeesoontorn, Duangjai Noiwan, Thomas Karbowiak, Chitsiri Rachtanapun and Pornchai Rachtanapun

Gels 2025, 11(9), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11090728 - 11 Sep 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2304

Abstract

This study developed hydrogels from durian rind-derived carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC_d) blended with poly(vinyl) alcohol (PVA) for biomedical applications. The influence of NaOH concentration (10–60% w/v) on the degree of substitution (DS) of CMC_d and the crosslinking properties [...] Read more.

This study developed hydrogels from durian rind-derived carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC_d) blended with poly(vinyl) alcohol (PVA) for biomedical applications. The influence of NaOH concentration (10–60% w/v) on the degree of substitution (DS) of CMC_d and the crosslinking properties of the resulting hydrogels was examined. Durian rind, a biodegradable and renewable resource, was transformed into CMC_d with DS values ranging from 0.17 to 0.94. The highest yield (230.96%) was achieved using 30% NaOH (CMC_d-30). This CMC_d-30 was combined with PVA and crosslinked using citric acid to form a hydrogel with maximum crosslinking efficiency (86.16%). The resulting CMC_d-30/PVA hydrogel exhibited a high swelling ratio (125.54%), reflecting its superior water absorption and functional group availability—key traits for biomedical use. Methylene blue (MB) release from the hydrogel extended up to 1440 min, confirming its drug delivery potential. Overall, the CMC_d-30/PVA hydrogel demonstrated promising biocompatibility potential and performance, making it a promising candidate for wound dressings and controlled drug delivery systems. This work highlights the potential of agricultural waste valorization in developing sustainable and efficient biomaterials for pharmaceutical and medical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels (3rd Edition))

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18 pages, 2553 KB

Open AccessArticle

3D-Bioprinting of Stromal Vascular Fraction for Gastrointestinal Regeneration

by Giordano Perini, Margherita Montescagli, Giada Di Giulio, Alberto Augello, Valeria Ferrara, Antonio Minopoli, Davide Evangelista, Matteo Marras, Giulia Artemi, Anna Amelia Caretto, Stefano Gentileschi, Dania Nachira, Valerio Pontecorvi, Cristiano Spada, Loredana Gualtieri, Valentina Palmieri, Ivo Boskoski, Marco De Spirito and Massimiliano Papi

Gels 2025, 11(9), 712; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11090712 - 4 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1234

Abstract

Intestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), Crohn’s disease, malabsorption syndromes, and gastrointestinal fistulae (GIFs) are often characterized by chronic inflammation, epithelial barrier disruption, impaired stromal remodeling, and defective angiogenesis. These multifactorial alterations hinder tissue repair and contribute to poor clinical outcomes, [...] Read more.

Intestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), Crohn’s disease, malabsorption syndromes, and gastrointestinal fistulae (GIFs) are often characterized by chronic inflammation, epithelial barrier disruption, impaired stromal remodeling, and defective angiogenesis. These multifactorial alterations hinder tissue repair and contribute to poor clinical outcomes, with limited efficacy from current therapeutic options. Despite recent advances in surgical and endoscopic techniques, current treatment options remain limited and are frequently accompanied by high morbidity and costs. In this context, regenerative medicine offers a promising avenue to support tissue repair and improve patient care Regenerative medicine offers a promising avenue to restore intestinal homeostasis using advanced biomaterials and cell-based therapies. In this study, we developed a 3D-bioprinted model based on patient-derived stromal vascular fraction (SVF) embedded in a GelMA hydrogel, designed to promote intestinal tissue regeneration. To identify the most suitable hydrogel for bioprinting, we initially evaluated the mechanical properties and biocompatibility of four distinct matrices using bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-MSCs). Among the tested formulations, GelMA demonstrated optimal support for cell viability, low oxidative stress, and structural stability in physiologically relevant conditions. Based on these results, GelMA was selected for subsequent bioprinting of freshly isolated SVF. The resulting bioprinted constructs enhanced key regenerative processes across multiple compartments. The SVF-laden constructs significantly enhanced intestinal epithelial cell viability and tight junction formation, as shown by increased trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER). Co-culture with fibroblasts accelerated wound closure, while endothelial cells exhibited increased tube formation in the presence of SVF. Together with VEGF secretion, indicating strong paracrine and angiogenic effects. By supporting epithelial, stromal, and vascular regeneration, this approach provides a versatile and translational platform for treating a broad spectrum of intestinal pathologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels (3rd Edition))

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15 pages, 2998 KB

Open AccessArticle

CMCSMA-Citric Acid Hydrogel-Coated Pancreatic Duct Stent Used for Pancreatic Calculi

by Jing Li, Jiahao Yang and Shige Wang

Gels 2025, 11(8), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080651 - 16 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1072 | Correction

Abstract

Pancreatic calculi, a common complication of chronic pancreatitis, significantly contribute to ductal obstruction, increased intraductal pressure, and debilitating abdominal pain. Although endoscopic pancreatic duct stenting alleviates ductal stenosis, conventional stents lack litholytic functionality, limiting their therapeutic efficacy. To address this challenge, we developed [...] Read more.

Pancreatic calculi, a common complication of chronic pancreatitis, significantly contribute to ductal obstruction, increased intraductal pressure, and debilitating abdominal pain. Although endoscopic pancreatic duct stenting alleviates ductal stenosis, conventional stents lack litholytic functionality, limiting their therapeutic efficacy. To address this challenge, we developed a drug-eluting pancreatic duct stent coated with a carboxymethyl chitosan methacrylate (CMCSMA)-based hydrogel utilizing 50% w/v citric acid (CA) as a litholytic agent. Polydopamine (PDA) interlayer was employed to enhance interfacial adhesion between the hydrogel and the stent surface. The CMCSMA hydrogel exhibited favorable physicochemical properties, including rapid gelation, excellent compressive strength (229.2 ± 14.8 kPa), hemocompatibility, and cytocompatibility. In vitro release studies revealed sustained CA release, achieving 66.3% cumulative release within 72 h. The hydrogel-coated stent demonstrated superior litholytic activity, dissolving over 90% of pancreatic calculi within 24 h. These results underscore the potential of CMCSMA-CA hydrogel-coated stents as a biocompatible and effective local drug delivery platform for targeted pancreatic duct litholysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels (3rd Edition))

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16 pages, 2534 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sodium Alginate/Carboxymethyl Chitosan Hydrogel Microbeads for Antibiotic Adsorption in Single and Binary Systems

by Zhisong Qian, Xinpeng Li, Gege Yan, Xiaoyong Chen, Mohd Shaiful Sajab, Gongtao Ding and Wan Nazihah Liyana Wan Jusoh

Gels 2025, 11(8), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080646 - 14 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1650

Abstract

The use of pharmaceuticals to treat human and animal diseases has resulted in the increase of antibiotic traces in the water system and soil, thus raising concerns about the environmental aspect. In this study, sodium alginate (SA) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) hydrogel microbeads [...] Read more.

The use of pharmaceuticals to treat human and animal diseases has resulted in the increase of antibiotic traces in the water system and soil, thus raising concerns about the environmental aspect. In this study, sodium alginate (SA) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) hydrogel microbeads were developed to enhance the adsorption of antibiotics by applying electrostatic spray in the fabrication of microbeads. Two hydrogel microbead sizes, SC-400 (~400 µm) and SC-2000 (~2000 µm), were used for the adsorption of tetracycline (TC) and ciprofloxacin (CIP) antibiotics in single and binary systems. The microbeads exhibited a good adsorption capacity and were able to achieve a maximum adsorption at pH 7 and 25 °C. Adsorption kinetics expressed suitability in the pseudo-second-order kinetic model for TC and CIP antibiotics. These results demonstrate that both single and binary systems align well with the Freundlich and Temkin isotherm models, indicating their suitability in explaining the adsorption mechanisms. These mechanisms predominantly involve electrostatic interactions between the SA/CMCS hydrogel microbeads and the antibiotics TC and CIP. This study highlights the capability of using SA/CMCS hydrogel microbeads for antibiotic removal and other environmental applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels (3rd Edition))

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19 pages, 5545 KB

Open AccessArticle

Core-Shell Hydrogels with Tunable Stiffness for Breast Cancer Tissue Modelling in an Organ-on-Chip System

by Ilaria Parodi, Maria Elisabetta Federica Palamà, Donatella Di Lisa, Laura Pastorino, Alberto Lagazzo, Fabio Falleroni, Maurizio Aiello, Marco Massimo Fato and Silvia Scaglione

Gels 2025, 11(5), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11050356 - 13 May 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2688

Abstract

Breast cancer remains the most common malignancy in women, yet, many patients fail to achieve full remission despite significant advancements. This is largely due to tumour heterogeneity and the limitations of current experimental models in accurately replicating the complexity of in vivo tumour [...] Read more.

Breast cancer remains the most common malignancy in women, yet, many patients fail to achieve full remission despite significant advancements. This is largely due to tumour heterogeneity and the limitations of current experimental models in accurately replicating the complexity of in vivo tumour environment. In this study, we present a compartmentalised alginate hydrogel platform as an innovative in vitro tool for three-dimensional breast cancer cell culture. To mimic the heterogeneity of tumour tissues, we developed a core–shell structure (3.5% alginate core and 2% alginate shell) that mimic the stiffer, denser internal tumour matrix. The human triple-negative breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231) was embedded in core–shell alginate gels to assess viability, proliferation and hypoxic activity. Over one week, good cells proliferation and viability was observed, especially in the softer shell. Interestingly, cells within the stiffer core were more positive to hypoxic marker expression (HIF-1α) than those embedded in the shell, confirming the presence of a hypoxic niche, as observed in vivo. When cultured in the MIVO^® milli fluidic organ-on-chip resembling the physiological fluid flow conditions, cancer cells viability became comparable between core and shell hydrogel area, emphasising the importance of the fluid flow in nutrients diffusion within three-dimensional matrixes. Cisplatin chemotherapy treatment further highlighted these differences: under static conditions, cancer cell death was prominent in the softer shell, whereas cells in the stiffer core remained resistant to cisplatin. Conversely, drug diffusion was more homogeneous in the core–shell structured treated in the organ-on-chip, leading to a uniform reduction in cell viability. These findings suggest that integrating a compartmentalised core–shell cell laden alginate model with the millifluidic organ on chip offers a more physiologically relevant experimental approach to deepening cancer cell behaviour and drug response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels (3rd Edition))

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