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Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "G: Energy and Buildings".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2022) | Viewed by 27326

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Dr. Paulo Santos

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Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: sustainability; thermal behaviour and energy efficiency of buildings; lightweight steel framed (LSF) construction; construction safety management; boundary elements method
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Currently, energy and sustainability are two of the major concerns of humankind. Given the relevant energy consumption share of the buildings sector, it is very important to search for innovative design solutions and for the optimal thermal performance of buildings in order to reduce energy bills and greenhouse gas emissions, while maintaining the comfort levels of the occupants. Additionally, given the environmental burdens of the construction sector, seeking more environmentally responsible processes and a more efficient use of resources is currently attracting more attention.

This Special Issue is dedicated to the analysis of the recent advances on the following topics: (1) thermal behaviour improvement of a building’s elements (e.g., walls, floors, roofs, windows, doors, etc.), (2) energy efficiency in buildings, and (3) sustainable construction. All types of the following research approaches are acceptable: experimental, theoretical, numerical, analytical, computational, case studies, and their combinations. The main criteria for paper acceptance are academic excellence; scientific soundness; the originality and novelty of applications, methods, fundamental findings, or experiments.

The Special Issue will include the following topics:

Thermal behaviour improvement of a building’s components (e.g., walls, floors, roofs, windows, doors, etc.);
Thermal bridges assessment and mitigation;
Energy efficiency in buildings;
Thermal inertia increase techniques (e.g., use of PCMs—phase change materials);
Building location and climate—air temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, ground temperature, daylight hours, and so on;
Building envelope—air tightness, thermal insulation, glazed openings, shading, and so on;
Building services—appliances, illumination, heating, air-conditioning, ventilation, heat recover, hot water production, and so on;
Human factors—occupancy schedule, utilization type, internal heat gains, and so on;
Passive heating and cooling techniques—natural ventilation, solar heat gains, Trombe walls, ground source heat exchangers, and so on;
Renewable energy sources for building applications—solar collectors for domestic hot water production, photovoltaic solar panels, wind turbines, and so on;
Optimization of thermal behaviour and of energy efficiency of buildings;
Environmental life-cycle assessment of buildings and building components;
Life-cycle cost assessment of buildings and building components;
Building’s operational and embodied energy.

Prof. Dr. Paulo Santos
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Building’s components
Thermal behaviour
Thermal bridges
Buildings
Energy efficiency
Thermal inertia
Climate
Building envelope
Building services
Human factors
Passive techniques
Renewable energy sources
Sustainable construction
Life-cycle assessment
Resource efficiency
Operational energy
Embodied energy

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

24 pages, 5620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Road Thermal Collector for Building Heating in South Europe: Numerical Modeling and Design of an Experimental Set-Up

by Antonino D’Amico, Giuseppina Ciulla, Alessandro Buscemi, Domenico Panno, Michele Zinzi and Marco Beccali

Energies 2022, 15(2), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020430 - 07 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1758

Abstract

The combination/integration of renewable energy and storage systems appears to have significant potential, achieving high-energy results with lower costs and emissions. One way to cover the thermal needs of a building is through solar energy and its seasonal storage in the ground. The SMARTEP project aims to create an experimental area that provides for the construction of a road solar thermal collector directly connected to a seasonal low-temperature geothermal storage with vertical boreholes. The storage can be connected to a ground-to-water heat pump for building acclimatization. This system will meet the requirements of visual impact and reduction of the occupied area. Nevertheless, several constraints related to the radiative properties of the surfaces and the lack of proper thermal insulation have to be addressed. The project includes the study of several configurations and suitable materials, the set-up of a dynamic simulation model and the construction of a small-scale road thermal collector. These phases allowed for an experimental area to be built. Thanks to careful investigation in the field, it will be possible to identify the characteristics and the best operation strategy to maximize the energy management of the whole system in the Mediterranean area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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21 pages, 12377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Climate Change and Occupant Behaviour on the Environmental Impact of the Heating and Cooling Systems of a Real Apartment. A Parametric Study through Life Cycle Assessment

by Gianmarco Fajilla, Emiliano Borri, Marilena De Simone, Luisa F. Cabeza and Luís Bragança

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8356; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248356 - 11 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1900

Abstract

Climate change has a strong influence on the energy consumption of buildings, affecting both the heating and cooling demand in the actual and future scenario. In this paper, a life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to evaluate the influence of both the occupant behaviour and the climate change on the environmental impact of the heating and cooling systems of an apartment located in southern Italy. The analysis was conducted using IPCC GWP and ReCiPe indicators as well as the Ecoinvent database. The influence of occupant behaviour was included in the analysis considering different usage profiles during the operational phase, while the effect of climate change was considered by varying the weather file every thirty years. The adoption of the real usage profiles showed that the impact of the systems was highly influenced by the occupant behaviour. In particular, the environmental impact of the heating system appeared more influenced by the operation hours, while that of the cooling system was more affected by the natural ventilation schedules. Furthermore, the influence of climate change demonstrated that more attention has to be dedicated to the cooling demand that in the future years will play an ever-greater role in the energy consumption of buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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16 pages, 10039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Case Study on a Stochastic-Based Optimisation Approach towards the Integration of Photovoltaic Panels in Multi-Residential Social Housing

by Rui Oliveira, Ricardo M.S.F. Almeida, António Figueiredo and Romeu Vicente

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7615; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227615 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1444

Abstract

The socioeconomic reality and the energy retrofit potential of the social housing neighbourhoods in Portugal are stimulating challenges to be addressed by research to pursue suitable energy efficient strategies to be integrated into these buildings. Therefore, this study explored a stochastic-based optimisation approach towards the integration of photovoltaic (PV) panels, considering different scenarios that combine the occupancy rate, the internal gains, the envelope refurbishment and the heating system efficiency. The optimisation approach has as its objective the minimisation of the life cycle cost of the photovoltaic system while using a limited space area on the rooftop for its installation. This study allowed concluding that the use of passive measures such as improving the thermal performance of the building envelope is essential to attain a lower optimal-sizing of a photovoltaic installation. The results reveal a decreasing trend in the PV optimal sizing, attaining a reduction up to 30% of the total number of PV panels installed on the sloped rooftop in several scenarios with 50% of occupancy rate. However, the impact can be greater when passive measures are coupled to more efficient heating systems, with higher COP, which result in a decrease up to 64% of the number of PV panels. Thus, the approach proposed is of paramount importance to aid in the decision-making process of design and sizing of photovoltaic installation, highlighting the practical application potential for social housing and a contribution for mitigation of the energy poverty of low-income families that live in these buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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Graphical abstract

30 pages, 13183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of HVAC’s Management on Indoor Thermo-Hygrometric Comfort and Energy Balance: In Situ Assessments on a Real nZEB

by Rosa Francesca De Masi, Antonio Gigante, Valentino Festa, Silvia Ruggiero and Giuseppe Peter Vanoli

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7187; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217187 - 02 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1585

Abstract

This paper proposes the analysis of real monitored data for evaluating the relationship between occupants’ comfort conditions and the energy balance inside an existing, nearly zero-energy building under different operational strategies for the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system. During the wintertime, the adaptive comfort approach is applied for choosing the temperature setpoint when an air-to-air heat pump provides both heating and ventilation. The results indicate that in very insulated buildings with high solar gains, the setpoint should be decided taking into consideration both the solar radiation and the outdoor temperature. Indeed, when the room has large glazed surfaces, the solar radiation can also guarantee acceptable indoor conditions when a low setpoint (e.g., 18.7 °C) is considered. The electricity consumption can be reduced from 17% to 43% compared to a conventional setpoint (e.g., 20 °C). For the summertime, the analysis suggests the adoption of a dynamic approach that should be based on the outdoor conditions and differentiated according to room characteristics. Considering the indoor comfort and the maximization of renewable integration, the direct expansion system has better performance than the heat pump; this last system should be integrated with a pre-handling unit to be energy convenient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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17 pages, 4446 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Performance and Benchmarking for University Classrooms in Hot and Humid Climates

by Jaqueline Litardo, Ruben Hidalgo-Leon and Guillermo Soriano

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7013; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217013 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2058

Abstract

In this paper, the energy performance of a university campus in a tropical climate is assessed, and four mixed classroom buildings are compared using benchmarking methods based on simple normalization: the classic Energy Use Intensity (EUI), end-used based EUI, and people-based EUI. To estimate the energy consumption of the case studies, building energy simulations were carried out in EnergyPlus using custom inputs. The analysis found that buildings with more classroom spaces presented higher energy consumption for cooling and lighting than others. In comparison, buildings with a greater percentage of laboratories and offices exhibited higher energy consumption for plug loads. Nevertheless, differences were identified when using the people-based EUI since buildings with larger floor areas showed the highest values, highlighting the impact of occupant behavior on energy consumption. Given the fact that little is known about a benchmark range for university campuses and academic buildings in hot and humid climates, this paper also provides a comparison against the EUIs reported in the literature for both cases. In this sense, the identified range for campuses was 49–367 kWh/m

^{2}

/year, while for academic buildings, the range was 47–628 kWh/m

^{2}

/year. Overall, the findings of this study could contribute to identifying better-targeted energy efficiency strategies for the studied buildings in the future by assessing their performance under different indicators and drawing a benchmark to compare similar buildings in hot and humid climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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14 pages, 7607 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Performance of Buildings with Thermochromic Windows in Mediterranean Climates

by Georgios E. Arnaoutakis and Dimitris A. Katsaprakakis

Energies 2021, 14(21), 6977; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14216977 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1712

Abstract

This article presents comparative results on the energy performance of buildings in the Mediterranean. Many buildings in the Mediterranean exhibit low energy performance ranking. Thermochromic windows are able to improve the energy consumption by controlling the gains from sunlight. In this article, reference buildings in 15 cities around the Mediterranean are investigated. In this work, a dynamic building information modeling approach is utilized, relying on three-dimensional geometry of office buildings. Calculations of the energy demand based on computational simulations of each location were performed, for the estimation of heating and cooling loads. The presented study highlighted the need for high-resolution data for detailed simulation of thermochromic windows in buildings of Mediterranean cities. Temperature is one of the main climate parameters that affect the energy demand of buildings. However, the climate of Mediterranean cities nearby the sea may affect the energy demand. This was more pronounced in cities with arid Mediterranean climate with increased demand in air-conditioning during the summer months. On the other hand, cities with semi-arid Mediterranean climate exhibited relatively increased heating demand. With this parametric approach, the article indicates the energy saving potential of the proposed measures for each Mediterranean city. Finally, these measures can be complemented by overall building passive and active systems for higher energy reductions and increased comfort. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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16 pages, 3779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Performance Improvement of Double-Pane Lightweight Steel Framed Walls Using Thermal Break Strips and Reflective Foils

by Paulo Santos and Telmo Ribeiro

Energies 2021, 14(21), 6927; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14216927 - 21 Oct 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1448

Abstract

The reduction of unwanted heat losses across the buildings’ envelope is very relevant to increase energy efficiency and achieve the decarbonization goals for the building stock. Two major heat transfer mechanisms across the building envelope are conduction and radiation, being this last one very important whenever there is an air cavity. In this work, the use of aerogel thermal break (TB) strips and aluminium reflective (AR) foils are experimentally assessed to evaluate the thermal performance improvement of double-pane lightweight steel-framed (LSF) walls. The face-to-face thermal resistances were measured under laboratory-controlled conditions for sixteen LSF wall configurations. The reliability of the measurements was double-checked making use of a homogeneous XPS single panel, as well as several non-homogeneous double-pane LSF walls. The measurements allowed us to conclude that the effectiveness of the AR foil is greater than the aerogel TB strips. In fact, using an AR foil inside the air cavity of double-pane LSF walls is much more effective than using aerogel TB strips along the steel flange, since only one AR foil (inner or outer) provides a similar thermal resistance increase than two aerogel TB strips, i.e., around +0.47 m²∙K/W (+19%). However, the use of two AR foils, instead of a single one, is not effective, since the relative thermal resistance increase is only about +0.04 m²∙K/W (+2%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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15 pages, 4190 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Replicable Methodology to Evaluate Passive Façade Performance with SMA during the Architectural Design Process: A Case Study Application

by Kristian Fabbri and Jacopo Gaspari

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6231; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196231 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2110

Abstract

Huge efforts have been made in recent decades to improve energy saving in the building sector, particularly focused on the role of façades. Among the explored viable solutions, climate-adaptive building shells [CABS] consider promising solutions to control solar radiation, both in terms of illuminance and heating levels, but are still piloting these solutions due to their complex designs and necessary costs. The present study aims to provide a speedy but reliable methodology to evaluate the potential impacts of adopting active/passive CABS systems during the preliminary design stage. The proposed methodology allows the evaluation and comparison, when multiple options are considered, of the effects of each solution in terms of the energy needs, thermal comfort and lighting, while reducing the required effort and time for an extensive analysis of the overall building level. This is based on the use of a “virtual test room” where different conditions and configurations can be explored. A case study in the city of Bologna is included for demonstration purposes. The achieved results support the decisions made regarding energy behavior (over/under heating), indoor comfort, lighting and energy at an early design stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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22 pages, 5694 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Theoretical Study on the Internal Convective and Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficients for a Vertical Wall in a Residential Building

by Piotr Michalak

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5953; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185953 - 19 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1954

Abstract

Experimental studies on internal convective (CHTC) and radiative (RHTC) heat transfer coefficients are very rarely conducted in real conditions during the normal use of buildings. This study presents the results of measurements of CHTC and RHTC for a vertical wall, taken in a selected room of a single-family building during its everyday use. Measurements were performed using HFP01 heat flux plates, Pt1000 sensors for internal air and wall surface temperatures and a globe thermometer for mean radiant temperature measured in 10 min intervals. Measured average CHTC and RHTC amounted to 1.15 W/m²K and 5.45 W/m²K, compared to the 2.50 W/m²K and 5.42 W/m²K recommended by the EN ISO 6946, respectively. To compare with calculated CHTC, 14 correlations based on the temperature difference were applied. Obtained values were from 1.31 W/m²K (given by Min et al.) to 3.33 W/m²K (Wilkes and Peterson), and in all cases were greater than the 1.15 W/m²K from measurements. The average value from all models amounted to 2.02 W/m²K, and was greater than measurements by 75.6%. The quality of models was also estimated using average absolute error (AAE), average biased error (ABE), mean absolute error (MAE) and mean bias error (MBE). Based on these techniques, the model of Fohanno and Polidori was identified as the best with AAE = 68%, ABE = 52%, MAE = 0.41 W/m²K and MBE = 0.12 W/m²K. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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18 pages, 3088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Energy Performance Analysis of a Hotel Building in a Hot and Dry Climate: A Case Study

by Sultan Kobeyev, Serik Tokbolat and Serdar Durdyev

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5502; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175502 - 03 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2457

Abstract

In times of unprecedented climate change and energy scarcity, the design and delivery of energy-efficient and sustainable buildings are of utmost importance. This study aimed to design a hotel building for hot and dry climate conditions and perform its energy performance analysis using energy simulation tools. The model of the hotel building was constructed by a graphical tool OpenStudio and EnergyPlus following the ASHRAE Standard 90.1. To reduce the energy demand of the hotel, parametric analysis was conducted and building envelope parameters such as the thickness of insulation layer in the exterior wall and the roof, thermal conductivity of insulation layer, rate of infiltration, U-factor of windows, and thermal resistance of air gap in the interior walls (R-value), window-to-wall ratio, and orientation of the building were tested and the impact on the energy use of the building was analyzed. It was found that most of the design assumptions based on the ASHRAE standard were already optimal for the considered locality, however, were still optimized further to reach the highest efficiency level. Apart from this, three sustainable technologies—thermochromic windows, phase change materials, and solar panels—were incorporated into the building and their energy consumption reduction potential was estimated by energy simulations. Cumulatively, these sustainable technologies were able to reduce the total energy use from 2417 GJ to 1593 GJ (i.e., by 824 GJ or 34%). Calculation of payback period and return on investments showed that thermochromic windows and solar panels have relatively short payback periods and high return on investments, whereas PCM was found to be economically nonviable. The findings of this study are deemed to be useful for designing a sustainable and energy-efficient hotel building in a sub-tropical climate. However, the overall design and energy performance analysis algorithm could be used for various buildings with varying climate conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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22 pages, 7823 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Evaluation of Energy-Efficiency in a Holistically Designed Building

by Raluca Buzatu, Viorel Ungureanu, Adrian Ciutina, Mihăiţă Gireadă, Daniel Vitan and Ioan Petran

Energies 2021, 14(16), 5061; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14165061 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1493

Abstract

The building sector continues to register a significant rise in energy demand and environmental impact, notably in developing countries. A considerable proportion of this energy is required during the operational phase of buildings for interior heating and cooling, leading to a necessity of building performance improvement. A holistic approach in building design and construction represents a step to moderate construction costs in conjunction with reduced long-term operating costs and a low impact on the environment. The present paper presents an experimental evaluation of the energy efficiency of a building under real climate conditions; the building, which represents a holistically designed modular laboratory, is located in a moderate continental temperate climate, characteristic of the south-eastern part of the Pannonian Depression, with some sub-Mediterranean influences. Considerations for the holistic design of the building, including multi-object optimization and integrated design with a high regard for technology and operational life are described. The paper provides a genuine overview of the energy efficiency response of the building during six months of operational use through a monitored energy management system. The energetic analysis presented in the paper represents an intermediary stage as not all the energetic users were installed nor all the energetic suppliers. However, the results showed a reliable thermal response in the behaviour of recycled-PET thermal wadding used as insulation material in the building and for the intermediary stage in which the building has only secondary energy users, the energetic balance proves its efficiency, keeping the buffer stock of energy high values over 90%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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19 pages, 10948 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Potential of the Reed as a Regenerative Building Material—Characterisation of Its Durability, Physical, and Thermal Performances

by Raphaele Malheiro, Adriana Ansolin, Christiane Guarnier, Jorge Fernandes, Maria Teresa Amorim, Sandra Monteiro Silva and Ricardo Mateus

Energies 2021, 14(14), 4276; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144276 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3598

Abstract

Knowing the properties of vernacular materials is crucial to heritage conservation and to develop innovative solutions. Reed, considered to be a carbon-neutral and a carbon dioxide sink material, has been used for centuries for diverse uses. Its high availability and properties made it a popular building material, including in Portuguese vernacular architecture. An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate the physical performance, thermal performance, and durability of the reed found in Portugal since the characterisation of this material was not found in previous studies. The influence of geometric characteristics and the presence of nodes on these properties were also analysed, and the results showed that they are irrelevant. The studied reeds were found to have an adequate thermal performance to be used as thermal insulation. Their thermal resistance (1.8 m²·°C/W) and thermal conductivity (0.06 W/m·°C) are under the requirements defined by Portuguese regulations on thermal insulation materials. Overall, the physical characteristics (moisture content, density, and retraction) are compatible to its use in the construction. Concerning durability, there was only a trend for mould growth in particular environments. The results provide valuable data to be considered in the development of new construction products based on this natural and renewable material. Additionally, considering the studied samples, the reed found in Portugal has characteristics suitable for use as a building material, especially as a thermal insulation material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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17 pages, 3035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Intensity Reduction in Large-Scale Non-Residential Buildings by Dynamic Control of HVAC with Heat Pumps

by Alessandro Franco, Lorenzo Miserocchi and Daniele Testi

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3878; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133878 - 28 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1992

Abstract

One of the main elements for increasing energy efficiency in large-scale buildings is identified in the correct management and control of the Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems, particularly those with Heat Pumps (HPs). The present study aimed to evaluate the perspective of energy savings achievable with the implementation of an optimal control of the HVAC with HPs. The proposed measures involve the use of a variable air volume system, demand-controlled ventilation, an energy-aware control of the heat recovery equipment, and an improved control of the heat pump and chiller supply water temperature. The analysis has been applied to an academic building located in Pisa and is carried out by means of dynamic simulation. The achieved energy saving can approach values of more than 80% if compared with actual plants based on fossil fuel technologies. A major part of this energy saving is linked to the use of heat pumps as thermal generators as well as to the implementation of an energy efficient ventilation, emphasizing the importance of such straightforward measures in reducing the energy intensity of large-scale buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volume II: Thermal Behaviour, Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Sustainable Construction)

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