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32 pages, 8031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

X-Rotor, an Innovative Offshore Wind Turbine to Reduce Cost of Energy

by William E. Leithead, Abbas Mehrad Kazemi Amiri, Arthur Camciuc, Laurence Morgan, James Carroll and Julian Feuchtwang

Energies 2025, 18(10), 2549; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18102549 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 190

Abstract

The cost of energy generated by large-scale vertical-axis wind turbines faces great challenges for it to be competitive with conventional horizontal-axis wind turbines for offshore deployment. To become competitive, significant reductions in capital cost and operational costs would be competitive. A novel vertical-axis [...] Read more.

The cost of energy generated by large-scale vertical-axis wind turbines faces great challenges for it to be competitive with conventional horizontal-axis wind turbines for offshore deployment. To become competitive, significant reductions in capital cost and operational costs would be competitive. A novel vertical-axis wind turbine that aims to meet these requirements is proposed: the X-rotor wind turbine. An early-stage feasibility study of exemplary two- and three-bladed 5 MW turbines is reported. The cost savings arising from two aspects of the concept that have the greatest impact, namely the power take-off system and O&M, are quantified. Two other aspects that could have a major impact on the cost of energy are the vertical axis rotor and the jacket. The masses for both are evaluated as proxies for their costs. The former costs are determined to be substantial relative to those of conventional HAWTs. Whereas the latter masses are determined not to be prohibitively greater relative to conventional HAWTs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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27 pages, 12122 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Investigation into the Saliency Ratio of Fractional-Slot Concentrated-Winding Generators for Offshore Wind Power

by Isaac Rudden, Guang-Jin Li, Zi-Qiang Zhu, Alexander Duke and Richard Clark

Energies 2025, 18(8), 2057; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082057 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 283

Abstract

This paper investigates the nature of the low saliency ratio of large permanent magnet generators with fractional-slot concentrated windings (FSCWs). A saliency ratio of at least 1.2 is typically required to enable sensorless control of large generators—a value naturally achieved in integer slot [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the nature of the low saliency ratio of large permanent magnet generators with fractional-slot concentrated windings (FSCWs). A saliency ratio of at least 1.2 is typically required to enable sensorless control of large generators—a value naturally achieved in integer slot winding topologies but absent in FSCW surface-mounted permanent magnet machines reported in the literature. The low saliency ratio in FSCW designs is attributed to larger teeth, which reduce magnetic saturation and increase d-axis inductance. This work explores methods to enhance the saliency ratio of FSCW machines for offshore wind turbines, facilitating sensorless rotor position estimation. The proposed approaches are categorized into two groups: (1) those that preserve the conventional machine geometry with minimal modification to the magnetic circuit and (2) those involving magnetic circuit alterations. The results show that significant improvement in saliency ratio is only achievable through magnetic circuit modifications, such as rotor shoes, albeit with some performance trade-offs. A multi-objective genetic algorithm is employed to design two optimized 3 MW FSCW machine topologies, achieving saliency ratios of 1.15 and 1.2 with minimal performance loss. Compared to a 3 MW FSCW baseline, the optimized designs show stator power reductions of 3.40% and 6.16% for saliency ratios of 1.15 and 1.2, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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15 pages, 1817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Two-Stage Hidden Markov Model for Medium- to Long-Term Multiple Wind Farm Power Scenario Generation

by Lingxue Lin, Zuowei You, Fengjiao Li, Jun Liu and Chengwei Yang

Energies 2025, 18(8), 1917; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18081917 - 9 Apr 2025

Viewed by 259

Abstract

Medium- to long-term wind power output scenarios are crucial for power system planning and operational simulations. This paper proposes a two-stage hidden Markov model-based approach for modeling the time series output of multiple wind farms. First, based on the key features of the [...] Read more.

Medium- to long-term wind power output scenarios are crucial for power system planning and operational simulations. This paper proposes a two-stage hidden Markov model-based approach for modeling the time series output of multiple wind farms. First, based on the key features of the wind power output sequence, the daily typical patterns of wind power output are extracted. Then, the process of simulating the wind power output time-series is modeled as a two-layer temporal model. The upper layer uses a discrete hidden Markov model to describe the day-to-day transition process of wind power output patterns and the lower layer uses a Gaussian mixture hidden Markov model to describe the fluctuation process of wind power output values within each output pattern. Finally, the upper models corresponding to each quarter and the lower models corresponding to each pattern are trained respectively and the time-series scenarios of wind power output for multiple wind farms are generated quarter-by-quarter and day-by-day through Monte Carlo sampling. Validation using real-world wind power data demonstrates that the proposed method can effectively generate medium- to long-term output scenarios for multiple wind farms. Compared to traditional methods, the proposed method shows improvements in terms of accuracy, statistical characteristics, temporal correlation, and mutual correlation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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18 pages, 19984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Cooperative Adaptive VSG Control Strategy Based on Virtual Inertia and Damping for Photovoltaic Storage System

by Yan Xia, Yao Wang, Yang Chen, Jinhui Shi, Yiqiang Yang, Wei Li and Ke Li

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1505; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061505 - 18 Mar 2025

Viewed by 340

Abstract

This research proposes a novel adaptive virtual synchronous generator (VSG) control strategy for a photovoltaic-energy storage (PV-storage) hybrid system. In comparison to the traditional VSG control approach, the adaptive control strategy presented in this research markedly diminishes the fluctuations in output power. This [...] Read more.

This research proposes a novel adaptive virtual synchronous generator (VSG) control strategy for a photovoltaic-energy storage (PV-storage) hybrid system. In comparison to the traditional VSG control approach, the adaptive control strategy presented in this research markedly diminishes the fluctuations in output power. This improvement is accomplished through the dynamic adjustment of virtual inertia (J) and damping coefficient (D), which enables real-time responsiveness to variations in light intensity, converter power, and load power factors that traditional VSG controls are unable to address promptly. Initially, a small signal model of VSG’s active power closed-loop system is established and analyzed for a grid-connected converter in a PV-storage hybrid system. The influence of these parameters on the response speed and stability of the PV-storage system is discussed by analyzing the step response and root locus corresponding to varying J and D conditions. Then, this study employs the power angle and frequency oscillation characteristics of synchronous generators (SGs) to formulate criteria for selecting the J and D. Based on the established criteria, a parameter-adaptive VSG control strategy is proposed. Ultimately, the efficacy of the proposed strategy is validated in MATLAB/Simulink under three distinct conditions: abrupt changes in light intensity, converter power, and load power. The results indicate that the strategy is capable of diminishing power oscillation amplitude, effectively mitigating instantaneous impulse current, and notably alleviating frequency overshoot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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15 pages, 6615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Walls on the Sky View Factors of Photovoltaic Systems

by Joseph Appelbaum and Assaf Peled

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1461; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061461 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 229

Abstract

Photovoltaic collectors deployed in multiple rows and near the structure’s walls are obscured from the receiving part of the diffuse skylight. Obscuring part of the diffuse skylight to the collectors decreases the incident diffuse radiation and thus, results in diffuse radiation losses. These [...] Read more.

Photovoltaic collectors deployed in multiple rows and near the structure’s walls are obscured from the receiving part of the diffuse skylight. Obscuring part of the diffuse skylight to the collectors decreases the incident diffuse radiation and thus, results in diffuse radiation losses. These losses are associated with the sky view factors. The inter-row diffuse radiation losses are associated with the sky view factor of the collector, and the wall diffuse radiation losses are associated with the sky view factor caused by the wall. The purpose of the present study is to develop mathematical expressions and a methodology for sky view factors of PV systems installed near obscuring walls. The study investigates the effect of the wall height, distance of the wall to the collectors, and collector and wall azimuth angles, on the sky view factors. The study may assist the PV system designer in assessing the contribution of the incident diffuse radiation to the generated electric energy of PV systems installed near obscuring walls. The simulation results indicate that the overall range of the sky view factor variation may be quite noticeable, between 0.97 (without the presence of a wall) and 0.78 (with the presence of a wall), for the parameters used in the study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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18 pages, 505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proposal of a Model for Improving the Management of the Wind Energy Industry in the Context of Sustainable Development Challenges

by Aleksander Pabian, Barbara Pabian and Katarzyna Bilińska

Energies 2025, 18(4), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040801 - 9 Feb 2025

Viewed by 707

Abstract

The aim of the article is to provide recommendations for the implementation of sustainable management principles into the practice of various companies operating in the onshore wind energy industry. The desk research method was used in the study, as well as free interviews [...] Read more.

The aim of the article is to provide recommendations for the implementation of sustainable management principles into the practice of various companies operating in the onshore wind energy industry. The desk research method was used in the study, as well as free interviews which were conducted with 30 people who are directly concerned with the issues related to the expansion of the wind farm network—they live in or plan to move to the vicinity of wind farms. The results obtained show that onshore wind energy should not be perceived solely through the prism of the sustainable operation of turbines and wind farms. As the interviews with the interlocutors showed, wind energy has also disadvantages and is a source of threats. The authors believe that the full sustainability of the wind energy industry will only occur when all economic entities, both directly and indirectly related to this sector, i.e., those involved in the design, production, transport, assembly, operation, supervision, and decommissioning of wind turbines, implement the goals of sustainable development by implementing systemic management solutions into their practice. This will be facilitated by the model approach to sustainable management presented in this article. In this context, the article contributes to the theory of sustainable development and management. It has also a practical value. There are specific solutions indicated that will facilitate the transformation of companies currently operating in the onshore wind energy industry into their fully sustainable counterparts. Their usage and implementation in the everyday practice of companies will contribute to increased energy security and the protection of the planet’s resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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16 pages, 5219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Order Grid-Connected Filter Design Based on Reinforcement Learning

by Liqing Liao, Xiangyang Liu, Jingyang Zhou, Wenrui Yan and Mi Dong

Energies 2025, 18(3), 586; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030586 - 26 Jan 2025

Viewed by 595

Abstract

In grid-connected inverter systems, grid-connected filters can effectively eliminate harmonics. High-order filters perform better than conventional filters in eliminating harmonics and can reduce costs. For high-order filters, the use of multi-objective optimization algorithms for parameter optimization presupposes that the circuit structure must be [...] Read more.

In grid-connected inverter systems, grid-connected filters can effectively eliminate harmonics. High-order filters perform better than conventional filters in eliminating harmonics and can reduce costs. For high-order filters, the use of multi-objective optimization algorithms for parameter optimization presupposes that the circuit structure must be known. To realize the design of the filter structure and related circuit parameters that meet the requirements of the grid-connected inverter system during the design process, this paper proposes a reinforcement learning (RL) method for designing higher-order filters. Our approach combines key domain knowledge with the characteristics of structural changes to obtain some constraints, which are then processed to obtain reward and are incorporated into RL strategy learning to determine the optimal structure and corresponding circuit parameters. The proposed method realizes the simultaneous design of parameters and structures in filter design, which greatly improves the efficiency of filter design. Simulation results for the corresponding grid-connected system setup show that the grid-connected filter designed by our method demonstrates a good performance in terms of filter dimension, harmonic rejection, and total harmonic distortion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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29 pages, 4950 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Design in Agriculture—Energy Optimization of Solar Greenhouses with Renewable Energy Technologies

by Danijela Nikolić, Saša Jovanović, Nebojša Jurišević, Novak Nikolić, Jasna Radulović, Minja Velemir Radović and Isidora Grujić

Energies 2025, 18(2), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18020416 - 18 Jan 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1590

Abstract

In modern agriculture today, the cultivation of agricultural products cannot be imagined without greenhouses. This paper presents an energy optimization of a solar greenhouse with a photovoltaic system (PV) and a ground-source heat pump (GSHP). The PV system generates electricity, while the GSHP [...] Read more.

In modern agriculture today, the cultivation of agricultural products cannot be imagined without greenhouses. This paper presents an energy optimization of a solar greenhouse with a photovoltaic system (PV) and a ground-source heat pump (GSHP). The PV system generates electricity, while the GSHP is used for heating and cooling. A greenhouse is designed with an Open Studio plug-in in the Google SketchUp environment, the EnergyPlus software (8.7.1 version) was used for energy simulation, and the GenOpt software (2.0.0 version) was used for optimization of the azimuth angle and PV cell efficiency. Results for different solar greenhouse orientations and different photovoltaic module efficiency are presented in the paper. The obtained optimal azimuth angle of the solar greenhouse was −8°. With the installation of a PV array with higher module efficiency (20–24%), it is possible to achieve annual energy savings of 6.87–101.77%. Also, with the PV module efficiency of 23.94%, a concept of zero-net-energy solar greenhouses (ZNEG) is achieved at optimal azimuth and slope angle. Through the environmental analysis of different greenhouses, CO₂ emissions of PV and GSHP are calculated and compared with electricity usage. Saved CO₂ emission for a zero-net-energy greenhouse is 6626 kg CO₂/year. An economic analysis of installed renewable energy systems was carried out: with the total investment of 19,326 € for ZNEG, the payback period is 8.63 years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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20 pages, 1654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Logistic Decisions in the Installation of Offshore Wind Farms: A Conceptual Framework

by Mario O. A. González, Gabriela Nascimento, Dylan Jones, Negar Akbari, Andressa Santiso, David Melo, Rafael Vasconcelos, Monalisa Godeiro, Luana Nogueira, Mariana Almeida and Pedro Oprime

Energies 2024, 17(23), 6004; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17236004 - 28 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1362

Abstract

Offshore wind energy has achieved significant reductions in its levelized cost of energy (LCoE) in the past decade, but still needs efficiency improvements. Approximately 18% of the LCoE is related to logistical costs, underscoring the need for optimization in this area. Despite its [...] Read more.

Offshore wind energy has achieved significant reductions in its levelized cost of energy (LCoE) in the past decade, but still needs efficiency improvements. Approximately 18% of the LCoE is related to logistical costs, underscoring the need for optimization in this area. Despite its importance, logistical decisions during offshore wind farm installations remain underexplored in the literature. This article aims to identify and structure the relationships of logistic decisions to optimize total installation costs. A conceptual framework is proposed, detailing logistical decisions and their influencing factors. The results are based on a literature review and survey research for validation with specialists in logistics and offshore wind farms. The findings include the key decisions: port installation selection; vessel fleet selection; installation strategy selection; turbine pre-assembly method selection; aggregate planning approach; installation schedule coverage; storage strategy of components; and the degree of sharing information. The framework reveals the importance of coordinating the value chain in the installation process, mainly due to the influence of weather factors; the logistic decisions, when considered in a systemic view, can contribute to a global efficiency gain in the installation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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Review

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32 pages, 2613 KiB

Open AccessReview

Energy Storage Systems: Scope, Technologies, Characteristics, Progress, Challenges, and Future Suggestions—Renewable Energy Community Perspectives

by Shoaib Ahmed and Antonio D’Angola

Energies 2025, 18(11), 2679; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112679 - 22 May 2025

Abstract

A paradigm transition from centralized to decentralized energy systems has occurred, which has increased the deployment of renewable energy sources (RESs) in renewable energy communities (RECs), promoting energy independence, strengthening local resilience, increasing self-sufficiency, and moving toward CO₂ emission reduction. However, the [...] Read more.

A paradigm transition from centralized to decentralized energy systems has occurred, which has increased the deployment of renewable energy sources (RESs) in renewable energy communities (RECs), promoting energy independence, strengthening local resilience, increasing self-sufficiency, and moving toward CO₂ emission reduction. However, the erratic and unpredictable generation of RESs like wind, solar, and other sources make these systems necessary, and a lot of interest in energy storage systems is increasing because they have rapidly become the cornerstone of modern energy infrastructure, and there is a trend towards using more RESs and decentralization, resulting in increased self-sufficiency. Additionally, ESS is increasingly being installed at or close to the point of energy generation and consumption, like within residences, buildings, or community microgrids, instead of at centralized utility-scale facilities, referred to be decentralized. By storing and using energy in the same location, this localized deployment reduces transmission losses, facilitates quicker response to changes in demand, and promotes local autonomy in energy management. Since the production of renewable energy is naturally spread, decentralizing storage is crucial to optimizing efficiency and dependability. This article also focuses on energy storage systems, highlighting the role and scope of ESSs along with the services of ESSs in different parts of the power system network, particularly in renewable energy communities (RECs). The classification of various ESS technologies and their key features, limitations, and applications is discussed following the current technological and significant information trends and discussing the ESS types for the RECs with different options as per the capacity, like small, medium, and large scale. It covers the overall scenario and progress, like overall European ESS installed capacity, and the work relevant to ESSs in RECs with different aspects, following the literature review. Additionally, it draws attention to the gaps and significant challenges related to ESS technologies and their deployment. Key future suggestions have also been given as per the current trends of technological information and significant information that may affect those trends globally in the future and would be helpful in the growth of ESSs integration in RECs. The authors also suggest the role of the government, stakeholders, and supportive policies that can aid in the implementation of ESS technologies in RECs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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27 pages, 13789 KiB

Open AccessReview

Long-Term Analysis of Hydropower’s Pivotal Role in Sustainable Future of Greece

by John K. Kaldellis

Energies 2025, 18(9), 2214; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18092214 - 27 Apr 2025

Viewed by 271

Abstract

Hydropower, a proven renewable electricity generation technology, has satisfied approximately 16% of the global annual electricity consumption up to the present day. In Greece, hydropower applications throughout the last thirty years have covered almost 6–10% of the mainland’s annual electricity demand. The present [...] Read more.

Hydropower, a proven renewable electricity generation technology, has satisfied approximately 16% of the global annual electricity consumption up to the present day. In Greece, hydropower applications throughout the last thirty years have covered almost 6–10% of the mainland’s annual electricity demand. The present work examines the long-term performance and the current status of hydropower applications in Greece as well as their potential contribution to accomplishing the national energy targets set in compliance with the European Directives. A dedicated visualization of large hydropower (LHP) plants’ main characteristics is also performed. Moreover, a critical evaluation of the existing LHP plants’ energy yield-based time evolution is carried out, attempting to provide insights into any fundamental trends and similarities. The analysis reveals that the majority of Greek LHP plants are primarily used to meet the corresponding mainland’s peak load demand. To this end, acknowledging the power balancing service capacity of pumped hydro storage stations, the prospects and the challenges for the specific energy storage technology’s deployment are also emphasized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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31 pages, 4108 KiB

Open AccessReview

Suitability of Existing Photovoltaic Degradation Models for Agrivoltaic Systems

by Adam Fennessy, Vasile Onea, James Walshe, John Doran, Marius Purcar and George Amarandei

Energies 2025, 18(8), 1937; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18081937 - 10 Apr 2025

Viewed by 611

Abstract

Agrivoltaic (AV) systems have the potential to meet the growing demand for sustainable societal development due to their ability to simultaneously enable food and energy production by using photovoltaics (PVs) on the same land used for agricultural activities. One of the major factors [...] Read more.

Agrivoltaic (AV) systems have the potential to meet the growing demand for sustainable societal development due to their ability to simultaneously enable food and energy production by using photovoltaics (PVs) on the same land used for agricultural activities. One of the major factors restricting the widespread implementation of AV systems is the lack of information regarding their operational lifetime, which is influenced by various degradation factors. This paper reviews the main degradation factors, modes, and physical mechanisms responsible for PV deterioration and performance inhibitors in conventional PV installations, including how these factors are evaluated, modeled, and potentially modified when placing PVs in the agricultural settings of typical AV systems. These degradation modes have been largely overlooked in modeling AV system designs for land use optimization. Therefore, further advancements are required to properly understand how agricultural environments play a role in modifying the thermal, irradiance, and hydrolysis degradation modes and whether such agricultural settings can lead to the onset of new degradation pathways. To enhance the adoption of AV systems in the agricultural sector, such insights are required to ensure that the maintenance costs are communicated to and well understood by the end users. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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25 pages, 8536 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Three-Dimensional Solar Harvesting with Transparent Spectral Selective Photovoltaics in Agrivoltaics

by Donglu Shi

Energies 2025, 18(7), 1788; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18071788 - 2 Apr 2025

Viewed by 778

Abstract

Although photovoltaic (PV) solar cells have been widely used for a variety of applications, several critical issues are yet to be addressed, including further enhanced power conversion efficiency (PCE) and their 2D solar harvesting with limited land availability. It has been reported that [...] Read more.

Although photovoltaic (PV) solar cells have been widely used for a variety of applications, several critical issues are yet to be addressed, including further enhanced power conversion efficiency (PCE) and their 2D solar harvesting with limited land availability. It has been reported that traditional PV installations require approximately 22,000 square miles to power the entire United States—posing a significant barrier, particularly in urban and agricultural settings. A unique dual modality of PV system has been proposed and implemented for both power generation and crop photosynthesis, namely, agrivoltaics. This system installs PV panels over the crops while harvesting solar for PV electricity generation and, at the same time, integrates with crop cultivation, which is a promising solution to optimize land utilization. However, for opaque PV panels, sunlight is often obstructed, potentially impacting plant growth and yield. To address this critical issue, a 3D solar harvesting concept has been proposed and experimentally investigated. By placing multiple layers of transparent PV panels parallel, sunlight can penetrate multiple layers and generate electricity on each PV, significantly enhancing the solar harvesting surface area. Most importantly, sunlight can also be collected by the crops underneath for effective photosynthesis. Among various PV materials, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) using porphyrin-based dyes have demonstrated potential for spectral modulation, optimizing both electricity generation and crop illumination. This review focuses on a novel approach to a 3D solar harvesting system via a multi-layered PV architecture for agrivoltaics. Also discussed are the current challenges in agrivoltaics, spectral selective mechanisms, and 3D solar harvesting architecture that show promise for sustainable energy production and land-efficient solar power deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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29 pages, 3156 KiB

Open AccessReview

Renewable Energy for Sustainable Development in EU Countries: Status, Prospects, and Challenges

by Iwona Bąk, Katarzyna Wawrzyniak, Emilia Barej-Kaczmarek and Maciej Oesterreich

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1333; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061333 - 8 Mar 2025

Viewed by 771

Abstract

This study aims to present the current status and forecasts related to the generation of energy from renewable sources, as well as the challenges and barriers resulting from the development of this energy in the European Union countries. The research procedure consists of [...] Read more.

This study aims to present the current status and forecasts related to the generation of energy from renewable sources, as well as the challenges and barriers resulting from the development of this energy in the European Union countries. The research procedure consists of three stages: bibliometric analysis of scientific publications conducted based on the Web of Science database, visualization of results using VOSViewer software (version 1.6.20), and in-depth analysis of the content of the publications. The study covered two periods. The first one covered the years 1990–2024, in which publications on sustainable development and renewable energy sources began to appear around the world. The second one included publications from 2002, because the first works on European Union countries were identified in that year. The final sample included 96 articles that identified key links between sustainable development and renewable energy. These topics accounted for 50% of all issues discussed in these articles. It turned out that one of the most important challenges of modern economies (21.9% of the articles examined) is finding a balance between sustainable economic growth and limiting environmental degradation. The literature review also shows that the renewable energy sector in the EU and its Member States is developing dynamically. This was confirmed by Eurostat data on both renewable energy production and consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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27 pages, 2485 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Design Schemes and AI Optimization Algorithms for High-Efficiency Offshore Wind Farm Collection Systems

by Yuchen Wang, Dongran Song, Li Wang, Chaoneng Huang, Qian Huang, Jian Yang and Solomin Evgeny

Energies 2025, 18(3), 594; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030594 - 27 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1027

Abstract

The offshore wind power sector has witnessed exponential growth over the past decade, with large-scale offshore wind farms grappling with the challenge of elevated construction and maintenance expenses. Given that the collector system constitutes a substantial part of the investment cost in wind [...] Read more.

The offshore wind power sector has witnessed exponential growth over the past decade, with large-scale offshore wind farms grappling with the challenge of elevated construction and maintenance expenses. Given that the collector system constitutes a substantial part of the investment cost in wind farms, the design and optimization of this system are pivotal to enhancing the economic viability of offshore wind farms. A thorough examination of collector system design and optimization methodologies is essential to elucidate the critical aspects of collector system design and to assess the comparative merits and drawbacks of various optimization techniques, thereby facilitating the development of collector systems that offer superior economic performance and heightened reliability. This paper conducts a review of the evolving trends in collector system research, with a particular emphasis on topology optimization models and algorithms. It juxtaposes the economic and reliability aspects of collector systems with varying topologies and voltage levels. Building on this foundation, the paper delves into the optimization objectives and variables within optimization models. Furthermore, it provides a comprehensive overview and synthesis of AI-driven optimization algorithms employed to address the optimization challenges inherent in offshore wind farm collector systems. The paper concludes by summarizing the existing research limitations pertaining to offshore wind farm collector systems and proposes innovative directions for future investigative endeavors. The overarching goal of this paper is to enhance the comprehension of offshore wind farm collector system design and optimization through a systematic analysis, thereby fostering the continued advancement of offshore wind power technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Development and Utilization: 4th Edition)

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