Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
3.4
2.1
Journals
Diversity
Special Issues
Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens
share announcement

Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens

A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Diversity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2024) | Viewed by 28161

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Carolina Romeiro Fernandes Chagas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of Parasitology, Institute of Ecology, Nature Research Centre, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: wildlife diseases; wildlife conservation; haemosporidian parasites; vector-borne diseases; clinical pathology; parasite biology; host-parasite relationship
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Francisco Ferreira

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
2. Center for Vector Biology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901-8536, USA
Interests: one health; wildlife diseases; vector-borne diseases; zoo medicine; veterinary parasitology; lizard malaria; avian haemosporidians

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We have created a Special Issue in the journal Diversity in order to integrate the multiple disciplines involved in wildlife pathogen research. Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, and helminths are important components of wildlife diversity even though they are frequently not considered as such. Knowing the diversity of these pathogens is important for better understanding their role in nature, their host range, and the level of threat they might represent to wild and domestic animals as well as humans.

This collection of research articles, short communications, and literature reviews will highlight studies on the diversity, biology, diagnosis, ecology, and evolution of pathogens that infect wild vertebrates. We also welcome studies investigating vectors involved in the transmission of pathogens circulating in enzootic and zoonotic cycles. Many thanks for your interest in contributing to this Special Issue.

Dr. Carolina Romeiro Fernandes Chagas
Dr. Francisco Ferreira
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Diversity is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2100 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • wildlife diseases
  • vector-borne diseases
  • zoonotic pathogens
  • infectious diseases
  • animal pathogen
  • disease outbreak
  • pathogen diagnosis
  • emerging diseases

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

  • Ease of navigation: Grouping papers by topic helps scholars navigate broad scope journals more efficiently.
  • Greater discoverability: Special Issues support the reach and impact of scientific research. Articles in Special Issues are more discoverable and cited more frequently.
  • Expansion of research network: Special Issues facilitate connections among authors, fostering scientific collaborations.
  • External promotion: Articles in Special Issues are often promoted through the journal's social media, increasing their visibility.
  • e-Book format: Special Issues with more than 10 articles can be published as dedicated e-books, ensuring wide and rapid dissemination.

Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (10 papers)

Download All Papers
Order results
Result details
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:

Research

Jump to: Review

13 pages, 6802 KiB  
Article
The Natural Infection of Freshwater Snails with the Avian Air Sac Fluke, Cyclocoelum mutabile (Trematoda: Cyclocoelidae), in Brazil
by Jordana Costa Alves de Assis and Hudson Alves Pinto
Diversity 2024, 16(7), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16070422 - 19 Jul 2024
Viewed by 420
Abstract
Trematodes of the family Cyclocoelidae are parasites mainly of the respiratory system of birds and present a cosmopolitan distribution. Although infection with these flukes can result in pathological changes and even bird death, information on their life cycles is scarce and almost entirely [...] Read more.
Trematodes of the family Cyclocoelidae are parasites mainly of the respiratory system of birds and present a cosmopolitan distribution. Although infection with these flukes can result in pathological changes and even bird death, information on their life cycles is scarce and almost entirely based on experimental infection data. Thus, the generation of knowledge on the mollusks that act as natural intermediate hosts of cyclocoelids is necessary and can aid control measures against these air sac trematodes. In the present study, gastropod mollusks collected in an urban stream from Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, were subjected to the compression technique for the detection of non-emerging larval trematodes. Tailless cercariae with confluent ceca were found in 8/30 (26.7%) specimens of Biomphalaria glabrata and 3/33 (9.1%) specimen of Physella acuta. Samples of the cercariae were subjected to morphological characterization and genetic study (28S, Cox-1, and Nad-1). For comparative purposes, adult trematodes previously collected in the air sac of a common gallinule (Gallinula galeata) found dead in another waterbody from the same region were also characterized. The molecular sequences obtained revealed a high degree of similarity (100% in 28S, 99.2% in Cox-1, and 99.5% in Nad-1) between larval stages found in mollusks and adult parasites found in G. galeata and morphologically identified as Cyclocoelum mutabile. The conspecificity with this widely distributed cyclocoelid was also corroborated by phylogenetic analysis and comparison with isolates of this species previously characterized in Peru and the Czech Republic (99.4–100% and 96.7–97.0% of similarity in Nad-1, respectively). Thus, the integrative analysis carried out in the present work enabled us to identify C. mutabile in mollusks in South America for the first time. The finding of B. glabrata and P. acuta as new intermediate hosts corroborates the importance of freshwater gastropods in the transmission of C. mutabile, as well as the low specificity to the mollusk group, as previously characterized through experimental studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2108 KiB  
Article
Occurrence of Hepatozoon in Some Reptiles from Brazilian Biomes with Molecular and Morphological Characterization of Hepatozoon caimani
by Gabriella R. C. Clemente, Germán A. Gutierrez-Liberato, Carolina C. Anjos, Pedro I. Simões, Jessica R. Mudrek, Alan Fecchio, José H. A. Lima, Patricia M. A. Oliveira, João B. Pinho, Bruno S. Mathias, Lilian O. Guimarães and Karin Kirchgatter
Diversity 2023, 15(12), 1192; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15121192 - 2 Dec 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2238
Abstract
Amphibians and reptiles represent a considerable proportion of the vertebrate fauna in Brazil. Different blood parasitic infections have been reported in these groups, such as Haemogregarina, Hepatozoon, Trypanosoma and microfilariae. However, insufficient research on interactions between these parasites and their hosts [...] Read more.
Amphibians and reptiles represent a considerable proportion of the vertebrate fauna in Brazil. Different blood parasitic infections have been reported in these groups, such as Haemogregarina, Hepatozoon, Trypanosoma and microfilariae. However, insufficient research on interactions between these parasites and their hosts has been carried out in some regions of the country. Samples were collected from populations of wild herpetofauna in different microhabitats throughout Brazil, totaling 111 samples of reptiles from the states of Mato Grosso and Pernambuco. We used an integrative approach, with classical microscopy, morphometry and molecular analysis, in order to identify hemoparasites present in the analyzed fauna. Genomic DNA was extracted for the PCR protocol based on the 18S ribosomal RNA gene for Hepatozoon spp. A total of 53 positives were obtained with molecular screening (47.7%), all confirmed as Hepatozoon spp. using DNA sequencing. Among positive samples, 23 slides were examined, confirming the presence of Hepatozoon spp. in 91.3% of the smears. The phylogenetic analysis performed with sequences from 43 samples resulted in a tree containing several distinct clades. Sequences were generally grouped according to the taxonomic order of the host. Co-infections with microfilariae and Trypanosoma spp. were also found in microscopy analyses. This study describes the presence of Hepatozoon caimani in a new host species (Paleosuchus palpebrosus) that can be a paratenic host in the natural environment. The existence of parasitic co-infections in alligator species underscores the significance of recognizing the impact of infections by various parasitic taxa on the host populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

11 pages, 1702 KiB  
Article
Trypanosomatids in Bloodsucking Diptera Insects (Ceratopogonidae and Simuliidae) Wild-Caught at Raptor Bird Nests in Temperate Forests
by Margarita Kazak, Rasa Bernotienė, Rimgaudas Treinys and Dovilė Bukauskaitė
Diversity 2023, 15(5), 692; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15050692 - 21 May 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1556
Abstract
Trypanosomatids are a huge group of vertebrate, invertebrate and plant parasites that can cause severe illnesses in hosts. Although avian trypanosomes are widely spread throughout the world, information about their transmission and vector–host relationships is still scarce. This study aimed to investigate Trypanosoma [...] Read more.
Trypanosomatids are a huge group of vertebrate, invertebrate and plant parasites that can cause severe illnesses in hosts. Although avian trypanosomes are widely spread throughout the world, information about their transmission and vector–host relationships is still scarce. This study aimed to investigate Trypanosoma prevalence in bloodsucking Diptera collected at tree-nesting raptor birds’ nests. Insects were collected in temperate forests of Eastern-Central Europe, in Lithuania, using UV light traps hung near common buzzard (Buteo buteo) and lesser spotted eagle (Clanga pomarina) nests at about 15 m height above the ground. A total of 1248 Culicoides (Ceratopogonidae) females and 3 blackflies (Simuliidae) were collected and tested for the presence of trypanosomatids using PCR-based methods. The blood of 85 nestlings, belonging to three different species (Buteo buteo, Clanga pomarina and Haliaeetus albicilla) was collected and tested using the same methods. We found that 11.1% of the investigated insects (one Simulium female and Culicoides biting midges belonging to five species) were infected with Trypanosoma parasites (Trypanosoma sp., T. bennetti group, T. avium) and monoxenous trypanosomatids (Crithidia sp., Obscuromonas sp.). Only one common buzzard nestling was found to be infected with Trypanosoma avium. The phylogenetic relationships of detected parasites were determined. Our findings supplement information on the ornithophilic behavior of Culicoides females, potential vector species of avian Trypanosoma, and produce some new information on the detection of monoxenous trypanosomatids (Crithidia sp. and Obscuromonas sp.) in Culicoides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 835 KiB  
Article
Prevalence, Molecular Characterization, and Ecological Associations of Filarioid Helminths in a Wild Population of Blue Tits (Cyanistes caeruleus)
by Jorge Garrido-Bautista, Josef Harl, Hans-Peter Fuehrer, Mar Comas, Steve Smith, Dustin J. Penn and Gregorio Moreno-Rueda
Diversity 2023, 15(5), 609; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15050609 - 29 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2271
Abstract
Filarioid nematodes (commonly known as filarial worms) are known to impact human and domestic animal health, but studies examining their ecological relevance and impacts on wildlife are still underrepresented. In the case of birds, microfilariae are typically found at low prevalence, but they [...] Read more.
Filarioid nematodes (commonly known as filarial worms) are known to impact human and domestic animal health, but studies examining their ecological relevance and impacts on wildlife are still underrepresented. In the case of birds, microfilariae are typically found at low prevalence, but they may negatively affect some fitness-related traits. Here, we study the prevalence and associations of microfilariae in a wild population of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) inhabiting a woodland comprising different forestry formations. In addition, we characterize the filarioid lineages through the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequence. We found a moderate prevalence of microfilariae in the blue tit population (9.4%) and that the presence of such parasites was negatively associated with host body mass. Neither forest type nor host sex influenced microfilariae presence. Phylogenetic analyses revealed the presence of five filarioid lineages clustered in the Onchocercidae family—four out of five lineages clustered in the Splendidofilaria clade, while the remaining lineage could not be clearly assigned to a genus. In addition, this is the first study examining the filarioid lineages infecting the blue tit. Our results suggest that hosts in poorer body condition, in terms of lower body mass, are more susceptible to be parasitized by filarioid nematodes and call for further genetic studies of these parasites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 4261 KiB  
Article
In Search of Proximate Triggers of Anthrax Outbreaks in Wildlife: A Hypothetical Individual-Based Model of Plasmid Transfer within Bacillus Communities
by Hsiao-Hsuan Wang, Alexandra E. Bishop, Tomasz E. Koralewski and William E. Grant
Diversity 2023, 15(3), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15030347 - 1 Mar 2023
Viewed by 1528
Abstract
Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax in humans, livestock, and wildlife, exists in a community with hundreds of other species of bacteria in the environment. Work on the genetics of these communities has shown that B. anthracis shares a high percentage [...] Read more.
Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax in humans, livestock, and wildlife, exists in a community with hundreds of other species of bacteria in the environment. Work on the genetics of these communities has shown that B. anthracis shares a high percentage of chromosomal genes with both B. thuringiensis and B. cereus, and that phenotypic differences among these bacteria can result from extra-chromosomal DNA in the form of plasmids. We developed a simple hypothetical individual-based model to simulate the likelihood of detecting plasmids with genes encoding anthrax toxins within bacterial communities composed of B. anthracis, B. thuringiensis, and B. cereus, and the surrounding matrix of extra-cellular polymeric substances. Simulation results suggest the horizontal transfer of plasmids with genes encoding anthrax toxins among Bacillus species persisting outside the host could function as a proximate factor triggering anthrax outbreaks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 4753 KiB  
Article
Haemosporidians in Non-Passerine Birds of Colombia: An Overview of the Last 20 Years of Research
by Ingrid Astrid Lotta-Arévalo, Angie Daniela González, Brayan Andrés Gamboa-Suárez, M. Andreína Pacheco, Ananías A. Escalante, Carlos Moreno, Oscar Rodríguez-Fandíño, Andrés Cuervo and Nubia E. Matta
Diversity 2023, 15(1), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15010057 - 3 Jan 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3658
Abstract
The Neotropics are highly diverse in avian species. Neotropical countries contribute a large part of the estimated diversity of haemosporidian parasites reported for the planet’s tropical zones. However, sampling is limited and biased, illustrated by only 30% of the genetic records (barcodes) from [...] Read more.
The Neotropics are highly diverse in avian species. Neotropical countries contribute a large part of the estimated diversity of haemosporidian parasites reported for the planet’s tropical zones. However, sampling is limited and biased, illustrated by only 30% of the genetic records (barcodes) from non-passerines, most of them not linked to a nominal species. This paper aimed to perform the molecular and morphological characterization of the haemosporidians that infect non-passerine birds from Colombia deposited in the biological collection named “Grupo de Estudio Relación Parásito Hospedero (GERPH)”. We analyzed 1239 samples from twelve biomes and two animal care facilities. Phylogenetic relationships using barcodes and mitochondrial genomes were estimated. In addition, the reports of haemosporidian infections in non-passerine birds from the Neotropics recorded after 1978 were summarized. We reported the presence of thirteen morphological haemosporidian species, four potential new species deposited in GERPH, a host range expansion for two Plasmodium species, and a barcode sequence for Haemoproteus caprimulgi. We confirmed the species associated with 56 molecular lineages reported in other neotropical countries at the genus level. Thus, biological collections and curated databases such as MalAvi are essential to support integrative approaches demanded in modern taxonomy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 4041 KiB  
Article
Nematode and Acanthocephalan Parasites of Confiscated Sunda pangolins, Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822 (Mammalia: Pholidota: Manidae), with an Updated List of the Parasites of Pangolins
by Diane P. Barton, Paolo Martelli, Brian M. Worthington, Tommy T.-Y. Lam, Xiaocheng Zhu and Shokoofeh Shamsi
Diversity 2022, 14(12), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14121039 - 27 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3009
Abstract
Background: The Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822, is a critically endangered species of pangolin that occurs from Indonesia to southern China. Knowledge of the biology and ecology of M. javanica is limited, however there have been previous reports of parasites, including nematodes, [...] Read more.
Background: The Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822, is a critically endangered species of pangolin that occurs from Indonesia to southern China. Knowledge of the biology and ecology of M. javanica is limited, however there have been previous reports of parasites, including nematodes, protozoans, ticks, and a cestode. Methods: An illegal shipment of 88 M. javanica carcasses, originally collected from wild populations throughout southeast Asia, were intercepted by Hong Kong border authorities (AFCD) and confiscated in 2018. Results: During necropsy, two different types of parasites were collected from four infected pangolins. The parasites were identified as the nematode Gendrespirura cf. zschokkei (Meyer, 1896) Chabaud 1958, which were embedded in the stomach wall, and the acanthocephalan, Oligacanthorhynchidae sp., collected from the intestine. Morphological descriptions and molecular characterization for each parasite type is provided. Conclusions: In addition, an updated list of parasites from pangolins, incorporating current taxonomic identifications and publications is presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2204 KiB  
Article
What Can Haemosporidian Lineages Found in Culicoides Biting Midges Tell Us about Their Feeding Preferences?
by Carolina Romeiro Fernandes Chagas, Carolina Hernández-Lara, Mélanie Duc, Kristina Valavičiūtė-Pocienė and Rasa Bernotienė
Diversity 2022, 14(11), 957; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14110957 - 8 Nov 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1823
Abstract
Haemoproteus (Parahaemoproteus) parasites are transmitted by Culicoides biting midges. However, the natural vectors of only six of the almost 180 recognized Haemoproteus species have been identified. The aim of this study was to investigate wild biting midges naturally infected with Haemoproteus and to [...] Read more.
Haemoproteus (Parahaemoproteus) parasites are transmitted by Culicoides biting midges. However, the natural vectors of only six of the almost 180 recognized Haemoproteus species have been identified. The aim of this study was to investigate wild biting midges naturally infected with Haemoproteus and to understand the interaction network between Culicoides and Haemoproteus in Europe. Culicoides were collected with UV light traps from different sites in Lithuania. Parous females were morphologically identified based on their wings and heads. PCR-based methods were used to detect the Haemoproteus DNA, and salivary gland preparations were analyzed for the presence of sporozoites. Of the 580 Culicoides analyzed, 5.9% were positive for Haemoproteus DNA, and sporozoites were found in two of 11 sampled biting midge species: Culicoides kibunensis and Culicoides segnis. The interaction network revealed that C. kibunensis and C. segnis are frequently associated with several Haemoproteus lineages. On the other hand, some Haemoproteus lineages were found to interact with only one Culicoides species. This was the first report of C. segnis being a competent vector for H. minutus TURDUS2, H. asymmetricus TUPHI01, H. majoris PHSIB1, and H. fringillae CCF3; and of C. kibunensis being a competent vector for H. belopolskyi HIICT1. Culicoides segnis and C. kibunensis are both important vectors of Haemoproteus parasites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

9 pages, 742 KiB  
Article
Chlamydiaceae-Like Bacterium in Wild Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus)
by Lucía Gallo Vaulet, Ralph Eric Thijl Vanstreels, Luciana Gallo, Andrea Carolina Entrocassi, Laura Peker, Gabriela S. Blanco, Maria Virginia Rago, Marcelo Rodriguez Fermepin and Marcela M. Uhart
Diversity 2022, 14(9), 746; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14090746 - 10 Sep 2022
Viewed by 2046
Abstract
The family Chlamydiaceae is comprised of obligate intracellular bacteria, some of which are significant pathogens of humans and domestic animals. Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) are susceptible to Chlamydia psittaci outbreaks in captivity, and serological surveys detected antibodies against C. psittaci (or [...] Read more.
The family Chlamydiaceae is comprised of obligate intracellular bacteria, some of which are significant pathogens of humans and domestic animals. Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) are susceptible to Chlamydia psittaci outbreaks in captivity, and serological surveys detected antibodies against C. psittaci (or antigenically similar organisms) in wild populations of this species. To investigate the occurrence of Chlamydiaceae in wild Magellanic penguins, 167 cloacal swabs were collected from apparently healthy individuals at four breeding colonies along the coast of Chubut, Argentina. Real-time PCR revealed the presence of DNA from Chlamydiaceae-like bacteria in 61 cloacal swabs (36.5%). Detection did not correlate to nutritional status or to meaningful hematological abnormalities. Isolation in monkey kidney cells was unsuccessful, but DNA sequences for the 16S–23S rRNA region were obtained from one sample. Phylogenetic analysis showed a close relationship to unidentified Chlamydiaceae-like bacteria found in chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarcticus) in Antarctica and seagulls in France and the Bering Sea, and to Chlamydiifrater spp. isolated from flamingos in France. Further studies are necessary to clarify the taxonomy and investigate the epidemiology, pathogenicity, and zoonotic potential of this group of Chlamydiaceae-like bacteria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Review

Jump to: Research

18 pages, 1432 KiB  
Review
The Adaptive Host Manipulation Hypothesis: Parasites Modify the Behaviour, Morphology, and Physiology of Amphibians
by Irene Hernandez-Caballero, Luz Garcia-Longoria, Ivan Gomez-Mestre and Alfonso Marzal
Diversity 2022, 14(9), 739; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14090739 - 8 Sep 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7191
Abstract
Parasites have evolved different strategies to increase their transmission from one host to another. The Adaptive Host Manipulation hypothesis states that parasites induce modifications of host phenotypes that could maximise parasite fitness. There are numerous examples of parasite manipulation across a wide range [...] Read more.
Parasites have evolved different strategies to increase their transmission from one host to another. The Adaptive Host Manipulation hypothesis states that parasites induce modifications of host phenotypes that could maximise parasite fitness. There are numerous examples of parasite manipulation across a wide range of host and parasite taxa. However, the number of studies exploring the manipulative effects of parasites on amphibians is still scarce. Herein, we extensively review the current knowledge on phenotypic alterations in amphibians following parasite infection. Outcomes from different studies show that parasites may manipulate amphibian behaviours to favour their transmission among conspecifics or to enhance the predation of infected amphibians by a suitable definite host. In addition, parasites also modify the limb morphology and impair locomotor activity of infected toads, frogs, and salamanders, hence facilitating their ingestion by a final host and completing the parasite life cycle. Additionally, parasites may alter host physiology to enhance pathogen proliferation, survival, and transmission. We examined the intrinsic (hosts traits) and extrinsic (natural and anthropogenic events) factors that may determine the outcome of infection, where human-induced changes of environmental conditions are the most harmful stressors that enhance amphibian exposure and susceptibility to parasites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity of Wildlife Pathogens)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
 
Displaying articles 1-10
Back to TopTop