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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2025) | Viewed by 16527

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Dr. Elena Ferretti

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Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering (DICAM), Università di Bologna, 40126 Bologna, BO, Italy
Interests: material characterization; non-destructive testing; fracture mechanics; algebraic formulation; multi-scale numerical modelling; composite materials; reinforced concrete; masonry structures; earthen buildings; additive 3D printing in construction
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The aim of this Special Issue is to provide a venue for networking and communication between scholars in the field of sustainable buildings. This is a topical issue; the cities of the future are expected to face complex challenges, including maintenance, resilience, energy efficiency, and environmental sustainability. In order to avoid being caught unprepared in the management of cities of the near future, it is imperative that we develop in our materials engineering innovations that can bring significant improvements to design, planning, and environmental policies. To successfully pursue this goal, a “change of pace” is necessary, which will allow us to give innovative answers to the ancestral human need for comfortable and functional shelters. From this perspective, the exchange of skills between scholars from very different fields is strongly encouraged. Excessive sectorization, in fact, has always been the enemy of innovation.

The main topics to be covered include—but are not limited to—natural materials for structural retrofitting and strengthening, natural materials to improve the energy efficiency of buildings, additive 3D printing of natural building materials, risk management, seismic engineering, structure/subsoil interactions, experimental studies, structural modelling, and soil stabilization. Full papers, communications, and reviews are all welcomed.

Dr. Elena Ferretti
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

natural building materials
structural retrofitting and strengthening
energy efficiency additive
3D printing in construction risk management
seismic engineering
structure/subsoil interactions
experimental studies
structural modelling
soil stabilization

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 5502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Durability and Stability of Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cement-Stabilized Soils Under Cyclic Wet–Dry Conditions

by Ayesha Rauf, Sung-Woo Moon, Alfrendo Satyanaga and Jong Kim

Buildings 2025, 15(2), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15020228 - 14 Jan 2025

Viewed by 994

Abstract

Periodic wet–dry processes are a significant weathering mechanism that can quickly alter a soil’s mechanical characteristics, reducing its resilience and durability. This study investigates the physical and microstructural characterization of stabilized soils through experimental analysis. While the conventional approach to ground improvement involves the application of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and lime for treating unstable soil, this research explores calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement as an eco-friendly alternative with comparable efficacy and fewer adverse environmental effects. The primary objective is to evaluate the impact of cyclic wet–dry (W–D) events on the durability and stability of CSA cement-treated sand using comprehensive laboratory testing. Various samples were prepared with cement contents of 3%, 5%, 7%, and 10%, corresponding to the optimum moisture content. Stabilized soil specimens underwent testing for unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) after curing for 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. Subsequently, these specimens were exposed to zero, one, three, five, and seven W–D cycles. The outcomes show a decrease in the strength and durability index of the soil with a rising number of W–D cycles. However, the decline in the strength and durability of CSA-treated soil samples is significantly mitigated as the CSA content increases from 3% to 10%. The findings indicate that after seven W–D cycles, the UCS value of 10% cemented samples dropped by 14% after 28 days of curing, whereas 3% specimens experienced a 28% loss in strength. Similarly, UCS values for 5% and 7% cement content reduced from 666 kPa to 509 kPa and from 1587 kPa to 1331 kPa, respectively, indicating improved resilience with higher CSA content. The durability index was less affected during the first three cycles, but showed a more pronounced decline after five and seven cycles. For 3% cemented soil, the durability index dropped from 0.95 to 0.71, whereas for 10% cemented soil, it decreased from 0.97 to 0.82 after seven W–D cycles. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) also determines the cement–soil interaction before and after W–D, and it was noted that the pores and cracks increased after each cycle. Based on the findings, it is established that subgrade materials treated with CSA cement demonstrate durability, environmental sustainability, and suitability for integration into road construction projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Engineering in Sustainable Buildings)

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16 pages, 2946 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Distribution in Asphalt Concrete Layers: Impact of Thickness and Cement-Treated Bases with Different Aggregate Sizes and Crumb Rubber

by Thao T. T. Tran, Phuong N. Pham, Hai H. Nguyen, Phuc Q. Nguyen, Yan Zhuge and Yue Liu

Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2470; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082470 - 10 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1330

Abstract

The temperature estimation within asphalt concrete (AC) overlaid on cement-stabilized bases (CSB) is necessary for pavement analysis and design. However, the impact of different CSB gradations and rubberized CSB on AC temperature has not been thoroughly investigated. This study aims to clarify this effect by examining two types of CSB with nominal particle aggregate sizes of 25 mm and 31.5 mm, as well as the substitution of 5%, 10%, and 20% graded aggregates with rubber aggregates (RA) in CSB Dmax 25 using Ansys-based numerical simulations. The modelling also investigated 11 scenarios with different AC thicknesses (h_AC) ranging from 6 to 26 cm. The results indicated that CSB Dmax 31.5 reduced the daily maximum temperature fluctuation at the bottom of the AC (∆T_bottomAC) by approximately 8% compared to CSB Dmax 25. The inclusion of 5% RA in CSB Dmax 25 decreased ∆T_bottomAC by up to 20%. Additionally, the rubberized CSB increased the maximum temperature gradient between the top and bottom of the AC (ΔT_maxAC) by 9.5% with 5% RA and a 6 cm AC thickness; however, this increase was insignificant when h_AC exceeded 12 cm. This study also proposed the use of artificial neural network (ANN) models to predict the AC’s temperature distribution based on depth, the time of day, surface paving temperatures, and h_AC. The proposed ANN model demonstrated high accuracy (R² = 0.996 and MSE = 0.000685),which was confirmed by the numerical simulations, with an acceptable RMSE ranging from 0.28 °C to 0.67 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Engineering in Sustainable Buildings)

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22 pages, 13844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties and Microscopic Mechanism of Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag-Treated Clay Subgrades

by Arailym Mustafayeva, Aidana Bimykova, Sakiru Olarewaju Olagunju, Jong Kim, Alfrendo Satyanaga and Sung-Woo Moon

Buildings 2023, 13(12), 2962; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13122962 - 28 Nov 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1523

Abstract

Civil engineering faces a substantial challenge when dealing with soft and compressible clayey soils. Conventional soil stabilization techniques involving ordinary Portland cement (OPC) result in notable CO₂ emissions. This study explores the utilization of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, a by-product of steel production, for strengthening kaolin clay. This research investigates the influence of BOF slag particle size, BOF slag content, and the use of activators such as lime and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) on the stabilization of kaolin clay. The strength development is assessed through unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test, bender element (BE) test, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The findings reveal that higher BOF content and extended curing periods enhance soil strength, and lime and GGBFS effectively augment the stabilizing properties of BOF slag. Stabilizing kaolin clay with a 30% BOF/GGBFS mixture in a 50/50 ratio with 1% lime and curing for 7 days yielded a compressive strength of 753 kPa, meeting the Federal Highway Administration’s requirement for lime-treated soil. These combined measures contribute to developing a more robust and stable material with enhanced geotechnical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Engineering in Sustainable Buildings)

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16 pages, 4944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strategy for the Mix Design of Building Earthen Materials Made of Quarry By-Products

by Mathieu Audren, Simon Guihéneuf, Tangi Le Borgne, Damien Rangeard and Arnaud Perrot

Buildings 2023, 13(10), 2531; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102531 - 6 Oct 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1716

Abstract

The use of quarry by-products can enable the commercialization of a clay building material (reconstituted earth) thanks to minimal valorized and perennial stocks of materials. This study shows that quarry by-products can be used to mix design a clay-based building material for the manufacture of CEB. These soils are composed of quarry tailing and clayey muds. Proctor and dry compressive strength tests have shown that the proportion of mud that achieves the highest possible compressive strength is a balance between increasing density through the aggregate arrangement, increasing clay activity, and decreasing density through the increase in water content. These tests resulted in the formulation of materials with compressive strengths of 5.8 MPa and 8.4 MPa at densities of 2135 kg/m³ and 2178 kg/m³. The influence of mud incorporation on the material granulometry and on its characteristics was also studied. Moreover, a model allowing us to link the compressive strength, the clay activity, and the dry density is proposed for the materials composed of quarry by-products. This model enables us to facilitate the mix design and the standardization of the earth material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Engineering in Sustainable Buildings)

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21 pages, 7715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of Using Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash in Partial Replacement of Portland Cement Clinker

by Sâmara França, Leila Nóbrega Sousa, Sérgio Luiz Costa Saraiva, Maria Cecília Novaes Firmo Ferreira, Marcos Vinicio de Moura Solar Silva, Romero César Gomes, Conrado de Souza Rodrigues, Maria Teresa Paulino Aguilar and Augusto Cesar da Silva Bezerra

Buildings 2023, 13(4), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13040843 - 23 Mar 2023

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3550

Abstract

This work presents a technical and economic study using sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) to partially replace Portland cement clinker. To evaluate the technical viability, the replacement rates of 10, 20, and 30% of Portland cement were used in the experiments. The ashes used were in the following conditions: (i) as collected (AC), (ii) ground (G), and (iii) re-burnt and ground (RG). Three composition parameters were used in the mortar mix procedures: (i) mix with water factor/fixed binder in volume, (ii) mix with water factor/fixed binder in weight, and (iii) mix with the fixed flow. After the technical feasibility analysis, the benefit of the substitutions and an analysis of the relationship between cement consumption and the acquired compressive strength, correlating with possible economic costs, were discussed. SCBA AC was not suitable for the partial replacement of Portland cement clinker. SCBA G presented a satisfactory performance and SCBA RG was the ash that presented the best performance in the partial replacement of Portland cement clinker. For the same levels of compressive strength, the consumption of Portland cement per cubic meter of concrete reduced; from this, the cost of concrete and mortar could be reduced by 8%, with the ash having the same value as cement. Furthermore, the use of SCBA RG at 30% inhibited the alkali–silica reaction (ASR) in concretes with a reactive basalt and quartzite aggregate. SCBA G (20 and 30%) and SCBA RG (10 and 20%) inhibited the ASR in concretes with a reactive basalt aggregate and reduced the expandability in concretes with a reactive quartzite aggregate. Another point to highlight was the durability shown by the cements with SCBA, which, 900 days after the accelerated test of expansion by the alkali–aggregate reaction, maintained high levels of flexural strength when compared to the results obtained before the accelerated test of expansion. The present work concluded that using sugar cane bagasse ash to replace Portland cement is feasible from a technical, environmental, and economic perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Engineering in Sustainable Buildings)

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19 pages, 3722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Reactivity Test for Precursors of Alkali-Activated Materials

by Sâmara França, Leila Nóbrega Sousa, Marcos Vinicio de Moura Solar Silva, Paulo Henrique Ribeiro Borges and Augusto Cesar da Silva Bezerra

Buildings 2023, 13(3), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030693 - 6 Mar 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2495

Abstract

Alkali-activated materials (AAMs) result from the dissolution process and polycondensation of precursors in high pH solutions. This material is considered alternative cement with similar properties and lower environmental impact than Portland cement. However, AAMs are subjected to the same standardization applied to cement-based materials since no formal methods exist to characterize this material and/or the precursor reactivity. Therefore, this work aims to develop a method to characterize the reactivity of the main precursors used to produce AAMs. Hence, the precursors were assessed in two steps after chemical, physical, and mineralogical characterization. The first step evaluated the crystallinity change of the material after the acid attack by mixing 1 g of each material in 100 mL of 1% HF solution for 6 h at ambient temperature. The crystallinity change was evaluated by comparing the X-ray diffraction of the materials before and after the acid attack. The second step involved evaluating the formation of geopolymerization products in the pastes of studied precursors through FTIR test. The pastes were produced with Na₂SiO₃ and NaOH as activators. After 28 days of curing, the pastes were submitted to a FTIR test for structural analysis. This method was tested evaluating the reactivity of traditional precursors for alkali activation (i.e., silica fume (SF), blast furnace slag (BFS), and metakaolin (MK)), in addition sugarcane bagasse ash mechanically treated (SCBAM) and sugarcane bagasse ash mechanically and heat treated (SCBAMH) since SCBA is a promising precursor for alkali activation. Considering the crystallinity change of precursors (step 01), the formation of geopolymerization products (step 02), and the chemical composition of precursors (preliminary characterization), it could be concluded that: (i) surface area is not relevant to materials with small particle size (<23 µm); (ii) amorphous area is only relevant if the material exhibits the optimal chemical composition; and (iii) the chemical composition is a crucial parameter for alkali activation. In addition, the potential precursors for alkali activation should have a significant amorphous halo and a SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratio of 2 to 5. Also, it could be concluded that SF and SCBAMH do not exhibit adequate reactivity while BFS, MK, and SCBAM can be classified as reactive precursors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Engineering in Sustainable Buildings)

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Review

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50 pages, 4074 KiB

Open AccessReview

Comprehensive Review of Binder Matrices in 3D Printing Construction: Rheological Perspectives

by Yeşim Tarhan, İsmail Hakkı Tarhan and Remzi Şahin

Buildings 2025, 15(1), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010075 - 29 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1676

Abstract

Three-dimensional printing technology is transforming the construction industry, which is increasingly turning to advanced materials and techniques to meet environmental and economic challenges. This comprehensive literature review evaluated various binder materials, including cement, geopolymers, earthen materials, supplementary cementitious materials, polymers, and biopolymers, with a focus on their environmental impacts and rheological properties. The study revealed an increasing interest in cementitious binders, which deliver essential structural strength and exhibit a wide range of yield stress values (15 to 6500 Pa), influenced by binder type and supplementary materials such as nanoclay. However, the significant CO₂ emissions associated with cement pose major sustainability challenges. As a sustainable alternative, geopolymers demonstrate lower yield stress values (800 to 3000 Pa) while ensuring adequate buildability for vertical printing and reducing environmental impact. These findings underscore the need to adopt sustainable binder matrices to align 3D printing construction practices with global sustainability goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Engineering in Sustainable Buildings)

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Other

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25 pages, 37021 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Three-Dimensional Printing with Earthen Materials: A Settlement-Scale Design Experience

by Leonardo Giacomobono, Maria Argenti, Elena Ferretti and Giulio Paparella

Buildings 2024, 14(9), 2721; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092721 - 30 Aug 2024

Viewed by 2064

Abstract

This case study originates as a design experiment for a sustainable housing system built on-site. The context is Niamey, the capital of Niger. The study takes into account the environmental issues in the construction sector and aims to find a solution capable of meeting housing, environmental, and economic needs. In the field of earthen construction, the most important developments have been achieved in manufacturing methods. In particular, the use of an additive digital manufacturing system, such as large-scale 3D printing, allows the construction of complex shapes derived from structural and thermal studies, maintaining a high degree of automation in the construction process, reducing construction times and labor costs. This paper investigates the possibility of responding to housing and environmental needs with a settlement system made almost entirely of printed earth, maintaining the highest possible degree of automation. Starting from a study on the state of the art of 3D printing in architecture and printable earthen compounds, the design choices of similar cases are analyzed to understand the construction techniques, potentials, and limitations of the medium. Finally, a design proposal is developed based on the definition of a fully printable functional module, which, upon aggregation, determines the characteristics of the final settlement. This implies a radical change of approach compared to previous prototyping of 3D-printed earthen buildings, as the design of the single functional module is not an exercise that finds completion in itself, but is oriented to the scale of the settlement right from the definition of its basic geometric characteristics. In other words, the settlement is no longer the result of the serial aggregation of independent basic units, but arises spontaneously from the juxtaposition of functional modules designed to interact with each other and merge into a single residential complex. The settlement is, therefore, the large-scale replication of the alternation between full and empty spaces that characterizes the single functional module and, even more importantly, the replication can take multiple forms. In fact, the full and empty spaces of the functional module are planned to allow multiple combinations of aggregation. This introduces a certain degree of customization into the growth dynamics of the settlement, a factor that is entirely new compared to previous proposals by repeatable modules. No less important are the environmental implications, as designing for the scale of the settlement allows the low carbon footprint typical of earth-based construction to be extended from the single building to the entire settlement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Engineering in Sustainable Buildings)

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