Buildings' Thermal Performance and Energy Efficiency for a Sustainable Construction

A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2025 | Viewed by 3540

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
School of Architecture, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710000, China
Interests: green buildings; urban ecological environment and ecological planning
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Guest Editor
Joint School of Design and Innovation, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
Interests: urban design; thermal environment optimization; climate-sensitive design
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The increasing urgency of climate change and the need for sustainable development have prompted significant interest in improving the thermal performance and energy efficiency of buildings. This special issue aims to gather innovative research that explores the latest advancements in building materials, design strategies, and technologies that enhance thermal performance while reducing energy consumption. We invite contributions that address the integration of passive and active design approaches, the role of renewable energy sources, and the application of smart technologies in achieving energy efficiency. Additionally, studies that investigate the life cycle impacts of buildings, including energy use, carbon emissions, and thermal comfort, are encouraged. By showcasing interdisciplinary research and case studies, this issue will provide valuable insights for architects, engineers, policymakers, and researchers, fostering a collaborative approach toward sustainable construction practices. Together, we can contribute to a future where buildings are not only energy-efficient but also resilient and conducive to the well-being of their occupants.

Prof. Dr. Jingyuan Zhao
Dr. Xuan Ma
Dr. Qian Zhang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • thermal performance
  • carbon emissions
  • thermal comfort
  • sustainable construction
  • passive design
  • life cycle assessment

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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28 pages, 11045 KiB  
Article
Evaluating the Microclimatic Performance of Elevated Open Spaces for Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Cold Climate Zones
by Xuan Ma, Qian Luo, Fangxi Yan, Yibo Lei, Yuyang Lu, Haoyang Chen, Yuhuan Yang, Han Feng, Mengyuan Zhou, Hua Ding and Jingyuan Zhao
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2777; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152777 - 6 Aug 2025
Viewed by 198
Abstract
Improving outdoor thermal comfort is a critical objective in urban design, particularly in densely built urban environments. Elevated semi-open spaces—outdoor areas located beneath raised building structures—have been recognized for enhancing pedestrian comfort by improving airflow and shading. However, previous studies primarily focused on [...] Read more.
Improving outdoor thermal comfort is a critical objective in urban design, particularly in densely built urban environments. Elevated semi-open spaces—outdoor areas located beneath raised building structures—have been recognized for enhancing pedestrian comfort by improving airflow and shading. However, previous studies primarily focused on warm or temperate climates, leaving a significant research gap regarding their thermal performance in cold climate zones characterized by extreme seasonal variations. Specifically, few studies have investigated how these spaces perform under conditions typical of northern Chinese cities like Xi’an, which is explicitly classified within the Cold Climate Zone according to China’s national standard GB 50176-2016 and experiences both severe summer heat and cold winter conditions. To address this gap, we conducted field measurements and numerical simulations using the ENVI-met model (v5.0) to systematically evaluate the microclimatic performance of elevated ground-floor spaces in Xi’an. Key microclimatic parameters—including air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative humidity, and wind velocity—were assessed during representative summer and winter conditions. Our findings indicate that the height of the elevated structure significantly affects outdoor thermal comfort, identifying an optimal elevated height range of 3.6–4.3 m to effectively balance summer cooling and winter sheltering needs. These results provide valuable design guidance for architects and planners aiming to enhance outdoor thermal environments in cold climate regions facing distinct seasonal extremes. Full article
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17 pages, 5557 KiB  
Article
Optimal Spatial Configuration for Energy and Solar Use in Alpine-Frigid Resettlement Communities
by Bo Liu, Wei Song, Yu Liu, Chuanming Wang and Jie Song
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2691; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152691 - 30 Jul 2025
Viewed by 278
Abstract
Resettlement communities in Qinghai are located in cold, high-altitude regions with dry climates and strong solar radiation. Although not extremely cold, the moderate heating demand aligns well with high solar availability, making passive design highly effective for reducing energy use. This study investigates [...] Read more.
Resettlement communities in Qinghai are located in cold, high-altitude regions with dry climates and strong solar radiation. Although not extremely cold, the moderate heating demand aligns well with high solar availability, making passive design highly effective for reducing energy use. This study investigates solar-optimized spatial configurations that enhance passive energy performance while addressing functional settlement needs. Through parametric modeling and climate-responsive simulations, four key spatial parameters are examined: building spacing, courtyard depth, density, and volumetric ratio. The findings highlight the dominant role of front–rear spacing in solar access, with optimal values at 3–4 m for single-story and 5–10 m for two-story buildings, balancing radiation gain and land use efficiency. Courtyard depths under 2.7 m significantly limit south façade exposure due to shading from the opposite courtyard wall under low-angle winter sun. This reduction results in the south façade attaining only 55.7–79.6% of the solar radiation acquisition by an unobstructed south façade (the baseline). Meanwhile, clustered orientations reduce inter-building shading losses by 38–42% compared to dispersed layouts. A three-tiered design framework is proposed: (1) macro-scale solar orientation zoning, (2) meso-scale spacing tailored to building height, and (3) micro-scale courtyard modulation for low-angle winter radiation. Together, these strategies provide practical, scalable guidelines for energy-efficient, climate-responsive settlement design in the alpine regions of Qinghai. Full article
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30 pages, 8553 KiB  
Article
Correlation Between the Insolation Shadow Ratio and Thermal Comfort of Urban Outdoor Spaces in Residential Areas in Xi’an
by Jie Song, Yu Liu, David Hou Chi Chow, Bo Liu and Seigen Cho
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 1995; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15121995 - 10 Jun 2025
Viewed by 565
Abstract
Solar exposure and shading critically influence outdoor thermal comfort in residential areas, yet quantitative links between spatial morphology and microclimate remain insufficiently explored in cold-region cities. This study proposes a novel morphological indicator, the Insolation Shadow Ratio (ISR), to quantify sunlight–shade dynamics and [...] Read more.
Solar exposure and shading critically influence outdoor thermal comfort in residential areas, yet quantitative links between spatial morphology and microclimate remain insufficiently explored in cold-region cities. This study proposes a novel morphological indicator, the Insolation Shadow Ratio (ISR), to quantify sunlight–shade dynamics and investigates its correlation with outdoor thermal comfort (UTCI) in Xi’an, China. Combining field observations, microclimate simulations, and statistical analysis, we quantified ISR and UTCI across three representative outdoor spaces in a residential area. Photographic analysis and spatial parameterization were employed to calculate hourly ISR values. Significant correlations were observed between ISR and UTCI values. The measured data showed the strongest correlation at summer solstice at site C (Spearman’s r = 0.883, p < 0.01). GAM analysis of seasonal peak correlation data revealed that an optimal UTCI comfort range of 9 °C to 26 °C, corresponding to ISR thresholds of 0.0202–0.8384, achieved the highest autumn correlation at site C (r = 0.686, p < 0.01), while effectively balancing shade cooling effects and solar accessibility. The ISR framework provides a quantifiable tool for designers to optimize outdoor thermal environments and, when enhanced by parametric modeling tools, enables them to proactively optimize thermal performance during early-stage residential planning, offering a data-driven pathway for climate-resilient outdoor space design. Full article
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19 pages, 2789 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Low-Carbon Technology on Carbon Emissions Reduction in the Building Sector: A Case Study of Xi’an, China
by Dongyi Zhang, Lu Sun, Yifan Zhang, Tianye Liu, Lu Gao, Fufu Wang, Xinting Qiao, Yuqi Liu, Jian Zuo and Yupeng Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 1989; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15121989 - 10 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 525
Abstract
Efficient carbon reduction pathways in the building sector are critical for urban decarbonization. This study predicts urban carbon emissions and establishes models to evaluate the carbon emission reduction potential of applying building low-carbon technologies (LCTs) at the urban scale. The models under consideration [...] Read more.
Efficient carbon reduction pathways in the building sector are critical for urban decarbonization. This study predicts urban carbon emissions and establishes models to evaluate the carbon emission reduction potential of applying building low-carbon technologies (LCTs) at the urban scale. The models under consideration encompass a spectrum of active strategies, specifically heat pump (HP), rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems, and smart heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, alongside passive strategies encompassing advanced building materials and building envelopes. The predictive calculations consider building typologies, technological evolution, adoption rates, and local policy constraints. Results indicate that by 2030, the building sector in Xi’an will account for over 30% of the city’s total carbon emissions. The integrated emission reduction effect of LCTs reaches 25.8%, with building materials contributing the most significantly at 9%. Notably, rooftop PV systems demonstrate the highest carbon reduction potential among active strategies, while HP exhibits the fastest annual growth rate in mitigation. Furthermore, the study evaluates the feasibility of these LCTs to accelerate progress toward carbon reduction goals in the building sector. Full article
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21 pages, 2366 KiB  
Article
The Coupling Coordination Degree and Spatio-Temporal Divergence Between Land Urbanization and Energy Consumption Carbon Emissions of China’s Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration
by Zhengru Li, Yang Yu, Bo Liu, Xiaoyu Zhang, Tianyin Li, Nuo Shi and Yichen Ren
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1880; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111880 - 29 May 2025
Viewed by 446
Abstract
The strategic coordinated development of land urbanization and carbon emission systems in urban agglomerations is crucial for achieving dual carbon goals and sustainable development. While existing studies emphasize population and economic urbanization, the spatiotemporal coupling mechanisms between land urbanization (encompassing size, input, and [...] Read more.
The strategic coordinated development of land urbanization and carbon emission systems in urban agglomerations is crucial for achieving dual carbon goals and sustainable development. While existing studies emphasize population and economic urbanization, the spatiotemporal coupling mechanisms between land urbanization (encompassing size, input, and output dimensions) and carbon emissions remain underexplored. This study collects data on land urbanization and carbon emissions from 27 cities in China’s Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration between 2010 and 2019. By establishing evaluation systems for land urbanization and energy consumption carbon emission subsystems, by and employing coupling coordination degree models with spatial autocorrelation analysis methods, this paper analyzes the spatiotemporal dynamic evolution characteristics of the coupled coordination relationship between land urbanization and energy consumption carbon emissions in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration. The results indicate the following: (1) From 2010 to 2019, the comprehensive level of the land urbanization subsystem in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration continued to rise, with higher comprehensive indices in the southern and northern peripheral regions and lower values in central urban areas. The carbon emission subsystem showed sustained stable decline, with a gradual reduction in the number of cities maintaining low carbon emission levels. (2) Temporally, the overall coupling coordination degree of the urban agglomeration system demonstrated an upward trend, progressing from severe imbalance to the primary coordination stage. (3) Spatially, significant regional differences in coupling coordination degree were observed, showing higher values in the southeastern areas compared to the northwestern regions. (4) Most areas exhibited no significant clustering characteristics in the coupling coordination degree between land urbanization and energy consumption carbon emissions, while the local spatial clustering patterns demonstrated temporal variations. These findings systematically reveal the transition mechanisms of land–carbon coordination in urban agglomerations, providing empirical evidence to resolve the theoretical debate on urbanization’s dual role in emission promotion and reduction. Full article
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18 pages, 7526 KiB  
Article
Optimization Design Research of Architectural Layout and Morphology in Multi-Story Dormitory Areas Based on Wind Environment Analysis
by Xiangru Chen, Haoran Kang, Juanru Zhao and Qibo Liu
Buildings 2025, 15(10), 1747; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101747 - 21 May 2025
Viewed by 493
Abstract
Optimizing the wind environment within university dormitory areas is essential for ensuring student safety, enhancing living comfort, and improving building energy efficiency. In this study, the wind environment of multi-story university dormitories in cold regions is comprehensively investigated through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [...] Read more.
Optimizing the wind environment within university dormitory areas is essential for ensuring student safety, enhancing living comfort, and improving building energy efficiency. In this study, the wind environment of multi-story university dormitories in cold regions is comprehensively investigated through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations conducted with the PHONECIS software (version 2019), combined with orthogonal experimental design methods for systematic analysis and optimization. Through orthogonal experimental design, the effects of key morphological parameters—including building layout, length, width, and height—on the near-ground wind environment were evaluated. Among these, building width exerted the greatest influence, followed by building length, layout form, and finally building height. Based on the analysis, the optimal design scheme features a staggered building layout, with individual dormitory buildings measuring 60 m in length, 16 m in width, and 11.4 m in height. This optimized design was implemented in the multi-story dormitory area of the eastern section of Chang’an University’s New Campus. A comparative analysis of wind speed distribution before and after optimization, conducted specifically for the outdoor spaces during the winter season, revealed that the average near-ground wind speed was reduced from 3.3 m/s to 2.7 m/s, achieving an 18% reduction. The staggered arrangement and adjusted building proportions effectively dispersed airflow, mitigated high-velocity zones, and significantly enhanced outdoor wind comfort and pedestrian safety. This study introduces a morphology–wind environment coupling strategy from an architectural perspective to guide the design of dormitory buildings in cold regions. Rather than focusing on mathematical modeling, the research emphasizes design-oriented outcomes aimed at informing and optimizing practical architectural solutions for safer, more comfortable, and energy-efficient campus living environments. Full article
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Review

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24 pages, 2292 KiB  
Review
Enhancing Outdoor Environmental Comfort: A Review of Façade-Surface Strategies and Microclimate Impacts
by Zahida Khan and Mehdi Ghiai
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2829; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162829 - 9 Aug 2025
Viewed by 264
Abstract
Building façades traditionally focus on enhancing indoor environmental quality and improving energy performance, but undermine their influence on Outdoor Environmental Comfort (OEC), including thermal, acoustic, and visual conditions. With technological advancements in envelope design, research on new materials and green systems has been [...] Read more.
Building façades traditionally focus on enhancing indoor environmental quality and improving energy performance, but undermine their influence on Outdoor Environmental Comfort (OEC), including thermal, acoustic, and visual conditions. With technological advancements in envelope design, research on new materials and green systems has been introduced in the last few decades. This review examines the role of two key elements—façade materials and green façades—in shaping OEC. A total of 41 peer-reviewed studies (24 on urban scale and 17 on building scale) were categorized into three focus areas: (1) outdoor thermal comfort; (2) outdoor acoustic comfort; and (3) outdoor visual comfort. The analysis was structured across three levels: (a) Performance Determinants; (b) Metrics/Models; and (c) Material or Façade Types. We proposed this analytical structure to highlight the interactions between building façades and OEC domains (thermal, acoustic, and visual comfort). Our results showed façade treatment can impact all three comfort factors related to OEC, but trade-offs must be evaluated. Moreover, the findings highlighted that additional research is required to cover variations in both climate and context conditions, due to their close association with the OEC. Finally, the conceptual framework is presented to synthesize the three comfort domains for sustainable outdoor environments. Full article
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