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Advances in Sustainable Building Materials

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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 March 2024) | Viewed by 19325

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Isabel Torres

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Guest Editor

Instituto de Investigação e Desenvolvimento Tecnológico para a Construção, Energia, Ambiente e Sustentabilidade, 3000-370 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: structural analysis; building materials

Dr. Ana Luísa Velosa

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Guest Editor

Civil Engineering Department, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Interests: materials; construction and demolition waste; building renovation; building materials; geopolymer; metakaolin

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Civil construction continues to be one of the sectors with the greatest negative impact on the environment due to the excessive use of natural resources, high energy consumption and the high production of waste. It is estimated that buildings built in developed countries will be responsible for more than 40% of global energy consumption throughout their lifetime. With ongoing climate change, the reduction of natural resources and the need to rely on renewable energy sources, the pressure on the construction sector to utilize more responsible techniques and methods has become a reality.

The current major focus is on sustainable construction, in particular on the various aspects of the design, construction, maintenance and dismantling of buildings. Environmental and ecological concerns have revealed that certain materials and construction technologies cause great asymmetries in the environment, since the amount of natural resources needed for these technologies is not compatible with their self-regeneration capacities.

The market for sustainable materials for civil construction is growing and one of the major challenges of current research is the development of more sustainable building materials. These materials, from the extraction phase to their return to the environment, must have a low environmental impact throughout their whole life cycle. This Special Issue, dedicated to the theme “Advances in Sustainable Building Materials”, seeks to bring together and present the latest advances in scientific research in the area of developing more sustainable building materials that can contribute to greater sustainability in the construction sector, thus ending the pattern of unsustainable buildings.

Dr. Isabel Torres
Dr. Ana Luísa Velosa
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

sustainable construction
sustainable buildings
sustainable materials

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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44 pages, 19525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predictive Modeling and Experimental Validation for Assessing the Mechanical Properties of Cementitious Composites Made with Silica Fume and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

by Usama Asif, Shazim Ali Memon, Muhammad Faisal Javed and Jong Kim

Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1091; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041091 - 14 Apr 2024

Viewed by 427

Abstract

Using sustainable cement-based alternatives, such as secondary cementitious raw materials (SCMs), could be a viable option to decrease CO₂ emissions resulting from cement production. Previously conducted studies to determine the optimal mix designs of concrete primarily focused on either experimental approaches or empirical modeling techniques. However, in these experimental approaches, few tests could be performed for optimization due to time restrictions and lack of resources, and empirical modeling methods cannot be relied on without external validation. The machine learning-based approaches are further characterized by certain shortcomings, including a smaller number of data points, a less robust connection among the controlling factors, and a lack of comparative analyses among machine learning models. Furthermore, the literature on predicting the performance of concrete utilizing binary SCMs (silica fume (SF) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)) is not available. Therefore, to address these drawbacks, this research aimed to integrate ML-based models with experimental validations for accurate predictions of the compressive strength (CS) and tensile strength (TS) of concrete that includes SF and GGBS as SCMs. Three soft computing techniques, namely the ANN, ANFIS, and GEP methods, were used for prediction purposes. Eight major input parameters, including the W/B ratio, cement, GGBS, SF, coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, superplasticizer, and the age of the specimens, were considered for modeling. The validity of the established models was assessed by using external experimental validation criteria, statistical metrics, and performance measures. In addition, sensitivity and parametric analyses were performed. Based on statistical measures, the ANFIS models outperformed other models with higher correlation and lower statistical error values. However, the GEP models exhibited superior performance compared to ANFIS and ANN with respect to the closeness of the RMSE, MAE, RSE, and R² values between the training, validation, and testing sets for both the CS and TS models. Experimental validation showed strong evidence for the applicability of the proposed models with an R² of 0.88 and error percentages of less than 10%. Sensitivity and parametric investigations demonstrated that the input variables exhibited the patterns described in the experimental dataset and the available literature. Hence, the proposed models are accurate, have better prediction performance, and can be used for design purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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19 pages, 3794 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Highly Flowable Geopolymer Composites with Low-Content Polyvinyl Alcohol Fiber

by Hongmei Zhang, Fan Hu, Yuanfeng Duan, Jian Liao and Jiaqi Yang

Buildings 2024, 14(2), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020449 - 06 Feb 2024

Viewed by 612

Abstract

Geopolymer enhances mechanical properties with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers, but there has been limited research exploring low PVA fiber dosages for mechanical properties in 3D printing or shotcrete. This study experimentally investigated slag and fly ash-based geopolymer mixtures reinforced with 0.1%, 0.15%, and 0.2% PVA fiber by volume as well as a control group without PVA fibers. These mixtures were prepared using fly ash, quartz sand, slag powder, silica fume, and an aqueous sodium silicate solution as the alkali activator, with the addition of PVA fiber to enhance composite toughness. The mechanical properties of the composites, encompassing dog-bone tensile properties, cubic compressive strength, bending and post-bending compressive strength, and prism compressive properties, were evaluated. Significantly, specimens with 0.15% PVA fibers exhibited optimal performance, revealing a notable 28.57% increase in tensile stress, a 36.45% surge in prism compressive strain, and a 47.59% rise in tensile strain compared to fiber-free specimens. Furthermore, environmental scanning electron microscopy observations were employed to scrutinize the microscopic mechanisms of composites incorporating PVA fibers, slag, and fly ash. In comparison to fiber-free specimens, prism compressive specimens with 0.15% PVA fibers demonstrated a 27.17% increase in post-cracking loading capacity, a 44.07% increase in post-cracking ductility, a 50.00% increase in peak strain energy, and a 76.36% increase in strain energy ratio. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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16 pages, 11900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geopolymer Made from Kaolin, Diatomite, and Rice Husk Ash for Ceiling Thermal Insulation

by Cinthya Alvarado, Daniel Martínez-Cerna and Hernán Alvarado-Quintana

Buildings 2024, 14(1), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010112 - 31 Dec 2023

Viewed by 869

Abstract

In this study, geopolymers made of metakaolin (MK), diatomite (D), and rice husk ash (RHA) were developed for ceiling thermal insulation in houses to provide protection against cold temperatures. The influence of the constituent mixing ratio and the temperature of curing on the heat conductivity and compressive strength of the geopolymer was investigated. Specimens were formed according to a 10-level mix design with three replicates and subjected to curing at 40 °C and 80 °C. Heat conductivity and compressive strength were determined in accordance with established standards. The simplex lattice method was used to obtain the response surfaces, contour plots, and tracking curves. The geopolymers under study displayed a reduction in heat conductivity and an increase in compressive strength when the curing temperature was raised. The optimal mixing ratio to achieve a balance between the compressive strength and thermal conductivity of the geopolymers investigated was 0.50 MK and 0.50 RHA. Diatomite’s thermal insulation contribution is neutralized when crystals from the geopolymer gel fill the pore volume. The mixture’s optimal results were achieved when cured at 80 °C, demonstrating a thermal conductivity of 0.10 W/m·K and a compressive strength of 5.37 MPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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19 pages, 7408 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Cellular Concrete Structures Based on Waste Glass and Liquid Glass

by Svetlana V. Samchenko and Andrey V. Korshunov

Buildings 2024, 14(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010017 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2023

Viewed by 711

Abstract

The use of waste in the production of building materials is one of the possible ways to solve problems related to the sustainable management of non-degradable waste and difficult-to-recycle secondary resources. In this paper, a method is proposed for the non-autoclave production of an ultra-lightweight cellular concrete based on Portland cement, glass waste and liquid glass. A mixture of sodium hexafluorosilicate and hydroxide is used as a hardening activator, an aluminum powder serves as a gas-forming agent. The setting and hardening of raw mixtures occurs under the action of exothermal heat release due to a complex of chemical reactions occurring in the system, and the resulting material does not require additional heat treatment. It is optimal to use two fractions of glass waste to achieve acceptable material strength: coarse crushed (fineness modulus F_m = 0.945) and finely ground (specific surface S_sp = 450–550 m²/kg) glass. Glass particles of the fine fraction of glass, along with Portland cement, participate in hydrolytic and structure-forming processes, while glass particles of the coarse fraction play the role of reinforcing filler. The influence of the dispersion of glass and the density of liquid glass on the density, porosity, strength, water absorption and water resistance of the resulting cellular material was determined. At an average density of cellular concrete in the dry state of 150–320 kg/m³, the following characteristics can be achieved: a compressive strength up to 2.0 MPa, bending strength up to 0.38 MPa, thermal conductivity coefficient of the material in the range 0.05–0.09 W/(K·m), and a maximum operating temperature of 800 °C. The proposed ultra-lightweight cellular concrete can be used as a non-combustible heat and sound insulation material, as well as a repairing composition; the cellular concrete blocks can be used as filling masonry and for the construction of non-bearing internal walls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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24 pages, 11725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Assessment and Validation of the Hygrothermal Behaviour of an Innovative Light Steel Frame (LSF) Wall Incorporating a Monitoring System

by Rui Jerónimo, Márcio Gonçalves, Cristina Furtado, Kevin Rodrigues, César Ferreira and Nuno Simões

Buildings 2023, 13(10), 2509; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102509 - 03 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 815

Abstract

Currently, the construction sector is witnessing a growing demand for lightweight solutions, which can be justified by the need to adopt high-performance solutions and the fact that the industry is struggling with a shortage of skilled labour. In this sense, this study focuses on a novel and flexible building wall system, constructed using an innovative extensible LSF profile. To enhance its functionality, a monitoring system comprising printed sensors was integrated into the wall. These sensors underwent a thorough verification process. To evaluate the hygrothermal performance of the complete LSF wall solution and validate the novel monitoring system, an extensive ageing test focused on heat/rain, freeze/thaw cycles was conducted on a large-scale wall prototype. Additionally, this research introduces a novel approach by simulating exceptional solar radiation conditions, surpassing the standard cycles outlined in EAD 040083-00-0404, for the first time in this kind of solution. The results cover the measurements taken inside the building system using the incorporated monitoring system. Additionally, supplementary external temperature and heat flow sensors were used to determine the thermal transmittance. Visual and thermography inspections were also carried out. The findings reveal no instances of failures or defects that could potentially impact the hygrothermal behaviour of the system. The hybrid LSF constructive solution leads to more stable temperatures on the inner surface. The presence of direct solar radiation can raise surface temperatures by up to 5 °C compared to surfaces not exposed to such radiation, even when a light-coloured surface is used. The monitoring system worked correctly. In conclusion, the innovative profile proved to be resistant to hygrothermal cycles and the monitoring system developed is efficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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13 pages, 5775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Investigation of Repair Self-Sensing Composites Using S-CNT

by Youngmin Kim, Soo-Yeon Seo, Hyun-Do Yun, Gun-Cheol Lee and Seongwon Hong

Buildings 2023, 13(4), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13041015 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1155

Abstract

This study analyzed the mechanical and electrical characteristics of repair self-sensing composites. In order to ensure homogeneous dispersion of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in the repair mortar, porous powder was impregnated with the liquid MWCNT, dried, and then pulverized. This CNT powder was named S-CNT, and a repair self-sensing cement composite was fabricated using it with different dosages, by weight, of 3, 6, and 9%. Mechanical and electrical performances of the developed materials were investigated through flexural, compressive, and bonding strengths, dry shrinkage, porosity, and fractional change in resistance (FCR) tests. There was little difference in terms of strength, between the three different composites made with the different dosages of S-CNT. The strength of the composite with 9% of S-CNT was even higher than that of the plain specimen. As a result of measuring drying shrinkage, conducted to evaluate the effect of improving dispersion, the length change rate decreased as the amount of S-CNT increased. As a result of the porosity results of the specimens incorporating the same mass of CNT as S-CNT, it was confirmed that the dispersibility was clearly improved. In addition, as an electrical characteristic, when the S-CNT mixed specimen was repeatedly loaded with a bending load, FCR appeared, confirming the self-sensing performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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23 pages, 5345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alkali-Activated Hybrid Cement from Mineral Wool Fiber Waste and OPC

by Diego A. Gutiérrez-Orrego, Maryory A. Gómez-Botero and Edwin F. García

Buildings 2023, 13(2), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020354 - 27 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1559

Abstract

Cements to replace ordinary portland cement (OPC) are currently being studied due to the high environmental costs of OPC production. One viable alternative is alkali-activated cements, which can be made from pozzolanic materials such as stone wool fiber waste (SW). At present, SW is the most used insulation material in the world, and the disposal and recycling of it is an environmental challenge due to its fibrous nature and low density. In the present work, an alkali-activated cement (AAC) and an alkali-activated hybrid cement (AAHC) were obtained from the alkaline activation of SW. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the AAC and AAHC obtained was evaluated. After 28 days of curing at room temperature, the maximum UCS reached was 6.7 MPa for samples without the addition of OPC and 12.3 MPa for those with the addition of OPC. In addition, alkaline reaction products were identified in all the combinations through XRD and SEM-EDS. The results are promising as they show a hybrid material obtained from an industrial waste product and has a reduced carbon footprint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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18 pages, 4931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compressive Behavior of Interlocking Plastic Blocks Structural Elements Having Slenderness

by Muhammad Adnan, Faiza Khalid and Majid Ali

Buildings 2022, 12(12), 2257; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122257 - 18 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3647

Abstract

Earthquakes are among of the most harmful and potentially fatal natural disasters. Masonry structures in seismic zones of urban and rural areas around the world pose a threat to human life. Housing that is both affordable and earthquake-resistant in earthquake-prone areas is currently in demand in developing countries. For affordable earthquake-resistant structures in earthquake-prone areas, numerous researchers have studied mortar-free interlocking structures. Plastic blocks are used in order to reduce the mass of the overall structure. To start with, structures under gravity are explored first because more than 95% of its design life, any structure has to withstand gravity. Prototypes of interlocking plastic-block columns, solid walls, and walls with an opening are considered for making the mortar-free structures. In this study, the effect of slenderness on the behavior of interlocking-plastic-block structural elements is investigated under compressive loading by a servo-hydraulic testing machine in the laboratory. The effect of slenderness on the behavior of one and two-block-wide structural elements was investigated in terms of the stress–strain curve, energy absorption, and toughness index under compressive loadings. Correlations between the compressive strength of interlocking-plastic-block structural elements with varying thicknesses were found. Scaled-down prototypes of interlocking-plastic-block structural elements having two-block wide depicted more resistance to compressive loads than one block wide structural elements. The correlations among the one and two block wide interlocking-plastic-block columns, single and double-block-wide solid walls, and single and double-block-width walls with an opening found in this analysis were Pdc = 2.2 Psc, Pdsw = 2.9 Pssw, and Pdwo = 3.5 Pswo. This study can be applied in the future to better understand the detailed behavior of interlocking plastic blocks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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Review

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31 pages, 2133 KiB

Open AccessReview

Potential Use of Oyster Shell Waste in the Composition of Construction Composites: A Review

by Poliana Bellei, Isabel Torres, Runar Solstad and Inês Flores-Colen

Buildings 2023, 13(6), 1546; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13061546 - 17 Jun 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6709

Abstract

The oyster shell is a residue rich in calcium carbonate, which can be reused as a raw material for creating building materials. For this reason, many researchers focused on the incorporation of oyster shell in the composition of composites, as it is a means of contributing to the economic sustainability by reducing the presence of pollution caused by aquaculture waste in the environment, thus increasing the value chain of the construction sector and reducing its carbon footprint. This paper intends to systematize the scientific production related to oyster shell-based composites in construction, carrying out a search using the Scopus tool and a systematic review based on the PRISMA statement. The results show that research on the incorporation of oyster shell into cementitious mortar mixtures, with a focus on its use in concrete, dominates existing scientific research. There is a lack of studies on the incorporation of the oyster shell that address its application as an aggregate or binder in the composition of coating and laying mortars. Most existing research is from Asia, and there is a lack of research in some parts of Europe. In the Americas, Africa and Oceania, no existing studies were found. Despite the growing understanding of the importance of sustainability and economic issues related to products used in the blue circular economy sector, there are still few studies that consider the incorporation of waste or by-products of aquaculture. Future investigations that cover these practical and contextual gaps can contribute to the better use of oyster shell waste and its insertion in the blue circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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21 pages, 4565 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Reuse of Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag as Concrete Aggregate to Achieve Sustainable Development: Characteristics and Limitations

by Sara Carvalho Zago, Fernando Vernilli and Oswaldo Cascudo

Buildings 2023, 13(5), 1193; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13051193 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2064

Abstract

Basic oxygen furnace slag is considered a potential material for the replacement of natural aggregate in Portland cement concrete due to its similar physical characteristics. Therefore, in the present work, the slag was analyzed by Nitrogen sorption porosimetry, elemental analysis, mineralogical analysis, and volume stability. On the other hand, concrete mixtures were manufactured with basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag aggregates and characterized mechanically and morphologically. The results showed superior compressive strength due to interfacial improvements in the slag aggregate. Statistically, there was no differentiation between the reference concrete and the slag concrete mixtures for tensile strength. Additionally, due to the porosity and low stiffness presented by the slag, the concrete elastic modulus showed a slight decrease. The replacement of sand with BOF slag as fine aggregate in Portland cement concrete presents itself as a sustainable alternative for the elimination and valorization of this environmental liability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)

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