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Open AccessArticle

Retinal Vasculature in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder

by Caroline Simon Sherman, Erik Gunnarsson, Nycole Hidalgo, Victoria Chen, Kevin Zhang, Shuo Chen, Hwiyoung Lee, Hugh O’Neill, L. Elliot Hong and Osamah Saeedi

Bioengineering 2026, 13(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13010035 - 28 Dec 2025

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Abstract

The purpose of this research is to determine whether retinal vasculatures differ between participants with schizophrenia spectrum disorder (SSD) and controls. Ninety participants (51 SSD, mean age 35.8 ± 13.5, and 39 controls, mean age 35.5 ± 11.4) underwent 3 × 3 mm [...] Read more.

The purpose of this research is to determine whether retinal vasculatures differ between participants with schizophrenia spectrum disorder (SSD) and controls. Ninety participants (51 SSD, mean age 35.8 ± 13.5, and 39 controls, mean age 35.5 ± 11.4) underwent 3 × 3 mm² macular and 6 × 6 mm² optic nerve head (ONH) optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) scans. En face macula and ONH region images were divided into quadrants, binarized, and then skeletonized. Skeletonized vessel densities were compared between our two groups. Additionally, the foveal avascular zone (FAZ) size and acircularity index were compared between the two groups. There was significantly decreased vessel density in the temporal region of the ONH in the SSD group compared to controls (p = 0.033). Interestingly, the decreased vessel density was already present in patients with SSD in younger adulthood as compared to the controls (p = 0.006). There were no significant group differences in vessel density in any other region of the ONH, the ONH overall, any region of the macula, or the macula overall. There were also no significant group differences in the FAZ size or acircularity index. These data suggest there may be abnormal peripapillary retinal vasculature in patients with SSD. Whether this is a specific ocular vascular deficit or related to more systemic vascular abnormalities in SSD remains to be determined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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16 pages, 3887 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Vascular Remodeling in Coronary Artery Aneurysm and Ectasia Using Optical Coherence Tomography: A Comparative Analysis of Dilated and Non-Dilated Segments

by Patrycja Woźniak, Sylwia Iwańczyk, Konrad Stępień, Maciej Błaszyk, Maciej Lesiak, Weronika Jędraszak, Grzegorz Krupka, Tatiana Mularek-Kubzdela and Aleksander Araszkiewicz

Bioengineering 2026, 13(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13010014 - 25 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1345

Abstract

Background: Coronary artery aneurysm and ectasia (CAAE) represent uncommon forms of coronary artery disease characterized by abnormal arterial dilatation and complex remodeling. The mechanisms underlying their development remain poorly defined. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides high-resolution evaluation of plaque morphology and vessel wall [...] Read more.

Background: Coronary artery aneurysm and ectasia (CAAE) represent uncommon forms of coronary artery disease characterized by abnormal arterial dilatation and complex remodeling. The mechanisms underlying their development remain poorly defined. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides high-resolution evaluation of plaque morphology and vessel wall structure, offering insights into the pathophysiology of CAAE. Methods: We analyzed 21 patients with angiographically confirmed CAAE who underwent intracoronary OCT. Dilated segments were compared with adjacent non-dilated reference segments. Quantitative measurements included the maximal dilated segment’s diameter, reference diameter, and intima–media thickness. Qualitative assessment focused on plaque composition, calcification, neovascularization, fibrous cap characteristics, and thrombus. Results: Aneurysmal segments displayed larger lumen dimensions but no proportional increase in plaque burden, consistent with exaggerated positive remodeling. Compared with non-aneurysmal regions, CAAE segments exhibited significantly smaller calcification arcs and a lower prevalence of lipid plaques and neovascularization, suggesting a heterogeneous and potentially more fibrotic remodeling pattern. Classical features of plaque vulnerability were not consistently present in dilated segments, suggesting that hemodynamic factors, such as disturbed flow and stenosis, may contribute substantially to the thrombotic risk. Conclusions: OCT reveals distinct structural and compositional characteristics in CAAE, supporting the concept of maladaptive remodeling rather than uniformly unstable plaque. High-resolution intracoronary imaging enhances understanding of CAAE pathophysiology and may facilitate individualized clinical assessment and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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9 pages, 939 KB

Open AccessArticle

Clinical Utility of Ultra-Widefield Fundus Photography with SS-OCT Images in Justifying Prophylactic Laser Photocoagulation of Peripheral Retinal Lesions

by Joanna Żuk, Krzysztof Safranow and Anna Machalińska

Bioengineering 2025, 12(12), 1367; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12121367 - 16 Dec 2025

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Abstract

We aimed to validate the feasibility of combining ultra-widefield (UWF) fundus photography with targeted swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) for clinical decision-making regarding a prophylactic laser therapy. For this purpose we enrolled 119 patients (135 eyes) who, basis on fundus examination, were eligible [...] Read more.

We aimed to validate the feasibility of combining ultra-widefield (UWF) fundus photography with targeted swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) for clinical decision-making regarding a prophylactic laser therapy. For this purpose we enrolled 119 patients (135 eyes) who, basis on fundus examination, were eligible for prophylactic photocoagulation of degenerative retinal lesions. Eyes were classified into two groups: (1) justified laser, when SS-OCT confirmed vitreoretinal traction and/or subretinal fluid beneath the neurosensory retina; and (2) non-justified laser, when SS-OCT did not confirm these criteria. Using this SS-OCT-guided UWF approach, we found that 25.1% of eyes that initially qualified for laser based on clinical examination did not meet the SS-OCT criteria. Patients in the justified laser group were significantly younger than those in the non-justified group. Horseshoe retinal tears, lattice degeneration and snail-track degenerations, multiple lesions, and lesions located in the far and mid-periphery were significantly more frequent in the justified laser group than in the non-justified group. By contrast, the prevalence of operculated holes, bilateral lesions, and degenerative lesions in patients with a retinal detachment in the fellow eye did not differ between groups. Our findings suggest the SS-OCT-guided UWF imaging may refine patient selection for prophylactic laser therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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13 pages, 1146 KB

Open AccessArticle

Predictive Value of Optical Coherence Tomography Biomarkers in Patients with Persistent Diabetic Macular Edema Undergoing Cataract Surgery Combined with a Dexamethasone Intravitreal Implant

by Giuseppe Fasolino, Maryam Lazaar, Domenico Giovanni Della Rocca, Silke Oellerich and Sorcha Ní Dhubhghaill

Bioengineering 2025, 12(5), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12050556 - 21 May 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1769

Abstract

Background: Diabetic macular edema (DME) is the most common cause of vision loss among diabetic patients. The first-line treatments for DME are anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-drugs, while intravitreal steroids are generally reserved for second-line treatment. Limited data exist on the role of [...] Read more.

Background: Diabetic macular edema (DME) is the most common cause of vision loss among diabetic patients. The first-line treatments for DME are anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-drugs, while intravitreal steroids are generally reserved for second-line treatment. Limited data exist on the role of optical coherence tomography (OCT) biomarkers as predictors of success in non-responders to anti-VEGF treatment undergoing simultaneous cataract surgery and dexamethasone intravitreal implant (DEX-I). Methods: This study was designed as a retrospective analysis of patients with DME who were refractory to anti-VEGF treatment but underwent cataract surgery and received a DEX-I at the time of surgery. All procedures were performed between May 2021 and February 2024. The best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and central subfoveal thickness (CST) were recorded at baseline and at 1 week, 1 month, and 3 months. The following OCT-based biomarkers were also collected: ellipsoid zone (EZ) integrity, disorganization of the retinal inner layers (DRIL), CST, and hyperreflective foci (HRF). Correlations between the baseline biomarkers and the anatomical outcome were analyzed using linear mixed models (LMMs). Results: Eleven patients (eighteen eyes) met the inclusion criteria. The mean CST decreased significantly from 469.4 ± 53.8 µm at baseline, to 373.1 ± 34.7 µm at 1 week (p = 0.002) and 354.4 ± 24.1 µm at 1 month (p = 0.011). The mean BCVA improved significantly from 0.47 LogMAR to 0.33 LogMAR at 1 week (p = 0.001), 0.23 LogMAR at 1 month (p < 0.001), and 0.25 LogMAR at 3 months (p < 0.001). Baseline predictors significantly influencing CST included the presence of DRIL, a disrupted/absent EZ, and a higher CST. Conclusions: The administration of DEX-I for DME refractory to anti-VEGF treatment in patients undergoing cataract surgery promoted functional improvements persisting longer than the anatomical ones. Patients presenting with DRIL, disrupted EZ, and higher CST at baseline may be better candidates for the combination of DEX-I and cataract surgery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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9 pages, 1408 KB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Integration of Optical Coherence Tomography Thickness Map Overlays for Enhanced Visualization in Epiretinal Membrane Surgery: A Pilot Study

by Ferhat Turgut, Keisuke Ueda, Amr Saad, Tahm Spitznagel, Luca von Felten, Takashi Matsumoto, Rui Santos, Marc D. de Smet, Zoltán Zsolt Nagy, Matthias D. Becker and Gábor Márk Somfai

Bioengineering 2025, 12(3), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12030271 - 10 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2089

Abstract

(1) Background: The process of epiretinal membrane peeling (MP) requires precise intraoperative visualization to achieve optimal surgical outcomes. This study investigates the integration of preoperative Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) images into real-time surgical video feeds, providing a dynamic overlay that enhances the decision-making [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The process of epiretinal membrane peeling (MP) requires precise intraoperative visualization to achieve optimal surgical outcomes. This study investigates the integration of preoperative Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) images into real-time surgical video feeds, providing a dynamic overlay that enhances the decision-making process during surgery. (2) Methods: Five MP surgeries were analyzed, where preoperative OCT images were first manually aligned with the initial frame of the surgical video by selecting five pairs of corresponding points. A homography transformation was then computed to overlay the OCT onto that first frame. Subsequently, for consecutive frames, feature point extraction (the Shi–Tomasi method) and optical flow computation (the Lucas–Kanade algorithm) were used to calculate frame-by-frame transformations, which were applied to the OCT image to maintain alignment in near real time. (3) Results: The method achieved a 92.7% success rate in optical flow detection and maintained an average processing speed of 7.56 frames per second (FPS), demonstrating the feasibility of near real-time application. (4) Conclusions: The developed approach facilitates enhanced intraoperative visualization, providing surgeons with easier retinal structure identification which results in more comprehensive data-driven decisions. By improving surgical precision while potentially reducing complications, this technique benefits both surgeons and patients. Furthermore, the integration of OCT overlays holds promise for advancing robot-assisted surgery and surgical training protocols. This pilot study establishes the feasibility of real-time OCT integration in MP and opens avenues for broader applications in vitreoretinal procedures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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15 pages, 2922 KB

Open AccessArticle

Early Detection of Macular Atrophy Automated Through 2D and 3D Unet Deep Learning

by Wei Wei, Radhika Pooja Patel, Ivan Laponogov, Maria Francesca Cordeiro and Kirill Veselkov

Bioengineering 2024, 11(12), 1191; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11121191 - 25 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1600

Abstract

Macular atrophy (MA) is an irreversible endpoint of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which is the leading cause of blindness in the world. Early detection is therefore an unmet need. We have developed a novel automated method to identify MA in patients undergoing follow-up [...] Read more.

Macular atrophy (MA) is an irreversible endpoint of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which is the leading cause of blindness in the world. Early detection is therefore an unmet need. We have developed a novel automated method to identify MA in patients undergoing follow-up with optical coherence tomography (OCT) for AMD based on the combination of 2D and 3D Unet architecture. Our automated detection of MA relies on specific structural changes in OCT, including six established atrophy-associated lesions. Using 1241 volumetric OCTs from 125 eyes (89 patients), the performance of this combination Unet architecture is extremely encouraging, with a mean dice similarity coefficient score of 0.90 ± 0.14 and a mean F1 score of 0.89 ± 0.14. These promising results have indicated superiority when compared to human graders, with a mean similarity of 0.71 ± 0.27. We believe this deep learning-aided tool would be useful to monitor patients with AMD, enabling the early detection of MA and supporting clinical decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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Review

Jump to: Research

13 pages, 1533 KB

Open AccessReview

Overcoming Opacity: The Role of Intraoperative OCT in Complex Corneal and Anterior Segment Surgery

by Natalie di Geronimo, Antonio Moramarco, Vito Romano, Maurizio Mete and Luigi Fontana

Bioengineering 2026, 13(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13010015 - 25 Dec 2025

Viewed by 564

Abstract

Intraoperative optical coherence tomography (iOCT) has emerged as a pivotal technology in anterior segment surgery, particularly in cases limited by corneal opacity, edema, or altered anatomy. By providing real-time, cross-sectional imaging, iOCT enables surgeons to visualize otherwise hidden structures and to perform critical [...] Read more.

Intraoperative optical coherence tomography (iOCT) has emerged as a pivotal technology in anterior segment surgery, particularly in cases limited by corneal opacity, edema, or altered anatomy. By providing real-time, cross-sectional imaging, iOCT enables surgeons to visualize otherwise hidden structures and to perform critical intraocular maneuvers with greater precision and safety. Its integration into the surgical microscope allows continuous monitoring of tissue–instrument interaction, transforming traditionally “blind” procedures into image-guided interventions. This review highlights the role of iOCT in endothelial keratoplasty, deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty (DALK), management of acute corneal hydrops, synechiolysis, glaucoma drainage device implantation, and ocular trauma. In endothelial procedures, iOCT helps confirm Descemet membrane removal, graft orientation, and resolution of interface fluid. In DALK, it facilitates accurate cannula placement, stromal depth assessment, and evaluation of leucoma extension to guide surgical strategy. During hydrops management, iOCT supports precise air/gas injection and compression suture placement. Additionally, it enhances safety in synechiolysis, shunt implantation, and repair of traumatic corneal injuries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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21 pages, 1774 KB

Open AccessReview

Current Topics in OCT Applications in Vitreoretinal Surgery

by Shintaro Horie, Takeshi Yoshida and Kyoko Ohno-Matsui

Bioengineering 2025, 12(9), 962; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12090962 - 7 Sep 2025

Viewed by 2856

Abstract

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an indispensable tool in modern ophthalmology, where it is used in prior examinations, among various instruments, to assess macular or vitreoretinal diseases. Pathological macular/retinal conditions are almost always examined and evaluated with OCT before and after treatment. Vitreoretinal [...] Read more.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an indispensable tool in modern ophthalmology, where it is used in prior examinations, among various instruments, to assess macular or vitreoretinal diseases. Pathological macular/retinal conditions are almost always examined and evaluated with OCT before and after treatment. Vitreoretinal surgery is one of the most effective treatment options for vitreoretinal diseases. OCT data collected during the treatment of these diseases has accumulated, leading to the reporting of a variety of novel biomarkers and valuable findings related to OCT usage. Recent substantial developments in technology have brought ultra-high-resolution spectral domain/swept source OCT, ultra-widefield OCT, and OCT angiography into the retinal clinic. Here, we review the basic development of the instrument and general applications of OCT in ophthalmology. Subsequently, we provide up-to-date OCT topics based on observations in vitreoretinal surgery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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37 pages, 7384 KB

Open AccessReview

Visible Light Optical Coherence Tomography: Technology and Biomedical Applications

by Songzhi Wu, Shuo Wang, Baihan Li and Zhao Wang

Bioengineering 2025, 12(7), 770; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12070770 - 17 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5521

Abstract

Compared to widely used near-infrared OCT (NIR-OCT) systems, visible light OCT (vis-OCT) is an emerging imaging modality that leverages visible light to achieve high-resolution, high-contrast imaging and enables detailed spectroscopic analysis of biological tissues. In this review, we provide an overview of the [...] Read more.

Compared to widely used near-infrared OCT (NIR-OCT) systems, visible light OCT (vis-OCT) is an emerging imaging modality that leverages visible light to achieve high-resolution, high-contrast imaging and enables detailed spectroscopic analysis of biological tissues. In this review, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art technology development and biomedical applications of vis-OCT. We also discuss limitations and future perspectives for advancing vis-OCT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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23 pages, 903 KB

Open AccessReview

OCT in Oncology and Precision Medicine: From Nanoparticles to Advanced Technologies and AI

by Sanam Daneshpour Moghadam, Bogdan Maris, Ali Mokhtari, Claudia Daffara and Paolo Fiorini

Bioengineering 2025, 12(6), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12060650 - 13 Jun 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2303

Abstract

Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is a relatively new medical imaging device that provides high-resolution and real-time visualization of biological tissues. Initially designed for ophthalmology, OCT is now being applied in other types of pathologies, like cancer diagnosis. This review highlights its impact on [...] Read more.

Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is a relatively new medical imaging device that provides high-resolution and real-time visualization of biological tissues. Initially designed for ophthalmology, OCT is now being applied in other types of pathologies, like cancer diagnosis. This review highlights its impact on disease diagnosis, biopsy guidance, and treatment monitoring. Despite its advantages, OCT has limitations, particularly in tissue penetration and differentiating between malignant and benign lesions. To overcome these challenges, the integration of nanoparticles has emerged as a transformative approach, which significantly enhances contrast and tumor vascularization at the molecular level. Gold and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, for instance, have demonstrated great potential in increasing OCT’s diagnostic accuracy through enhanced optical scattering and targeted biomarker detection. Beyond these innovations, integrating OCT with multimodal imaging methods, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and ultrasound, offers a more comprehensive approach to disease assessment, particularly in oncology. Additionally, advances in artificial intelligence (AI) and biosensors have further expanded OCT’s capabilities, enabling real-time tumor characterization and optimizing surgical precision. However, despite these advancements, clinical adoption still faces several hurdles. Issues related to nanoparticle biocompatibility, regulatory approvals, and standardization need to be addressed. Moving forward, research should focus on refining nanoparticle technology, improving AI-driven image analysis, and ensuring broader accessibility to OCT-guided diagnostics. By tackling these challenges, OCT could become an essential tool in precision medicine, facilitating early disease detection, real-time monitoring, and personalized treatment for improved patient outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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24 pages, 726 KB

Open AccessReview

A Survey on Optical Coherence Tomography—Technology and Application

by Ali Mokhtari, Bogdan Mihai Maris and Paolo Fiorini

Bioengineering 2025, 12(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12010065 - 14 Jan 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 10583

Abstract

This paper reviews the main research on Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT), focusing on the progress and advancements made by researchers over the past three decades in its methods and medical imaging applications. By analyzing existing studies and developments, this review aims to provide [...] Read more.

This paper reviews the main research on Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT), focusing on the progress and advancements made by researchers over the past three decades in its methods and medical imaging applications. By analyzing existing studies and developments, this review aims to provide a foundation for future research in the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Applications of Optical Coherence Tomography, Second Edition)

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