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A special issue of Behavioral Sciences (ISSN 2076-328X). This special issue belongs to the section "Educational Psychology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2025) | Viewed by 7204

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jeri L. Little

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Guest Editor

Department of Psychology, California State University, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
Interests: memory; learning; category and concept formation; metacognition

Prof. Dr. Elizabeth Ligon Bjork

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Guest Editor

Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
Interests: memory; learning; metacognition; applications of findings from research in the science of learning to education and training

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Research in cognitive psychology has increased our understanding of how to optimize knowledge retention and transfer [1–3] (e.g., Dunlosky et al., 2013; Mayer, 2008; Roediger and Pyc, 2012). For example, study strategies that feel easy for learners are not always desirable in terms of producing learning that is both durable and generalizable [4] (e.g., Bjork and Bjork, 2011). Research on such desirable difficulties (e.g., testing oneself, spacing out one’s study, and interleaving examples from different categories) has applications both for how to construct more effective learning experiences and for how to understand and perhaps enlighten learners’ misconceptions about how to achieve optimal learning. Other important research has examined the contributions of self-explanation and feedback for the enhancement of problem solving and effective learning. Additionally, how attributes of an individual may affect learning has become an increasingly active and important focus of research in the study of how best to enhance learning; for example, in the area of concept learning, individuals can differ in the strategies they adopt to learn the relevant underlying concepts (e.g., memorization vs. rule abstraction), with important implications for what they actually learn [5] (e.g., Little and McDaniel, 2015).

Behavioral Sciences announces a Special Issue titled “Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology”. We welcome the submission of original research papers and review articles on topics including (but not limited to) optimizing retention and transfer, concept formation, metacognition, and individual differences in learning. Research can be lab-based or based on research in authentic educational settings (e.g., classrooms). We welcome contributions that use basic materials so long as a clear argument is made for the application of this research to educational/training contexts.

References

Dunlosky, J.; Rawson, K. A.; Marsh, E. J.; Nathan, M. J.; and Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public interest, 14(1), 4–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266
Mayer, R. I. (2008). Learning and Instruction, 2^nd Ed. Pearson Education, New Jersey.
Roediger III, H. L., & Pyc, M. A. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(4), 242-248.
Bjork, R. A., & Bjork, E. L. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. In M. A. Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, & J. R. Pomerantz (Eds.), Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society (pp. 56– 64). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Little, J. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2015). Some learners abstract, others memorize examples: Implications for education. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 1(2), 158–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000031

Abstract deadline: August 30, 2024
Notification of abstract acceptance: September 15, 2024

Dr. Jeri L. Little
Prof. Dr. Elizabeth Ligon Bjork
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Behavioral Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

learning
memory
metacognition
concepts
categories
education

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 1853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Whether Making Second-Language Vocabulary Learning Difficult Enhances Retention and Transfer

by Alice F. Healy, Vivian I. Schneider and James A. Kole

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 692; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050692 - 17 May 2025

Viewed by 113

Abstract

Four previous and two new experiments from our laboratory are reported, in which college students learned associations between French and English words in a learning phase and then took an immediate retention test. One week later, a delayed test was followed by relearning. Four difficulty manipulations were used during learning: blocking versus mixing semantic categories, translation direction, prelearning, and set size. The first new experiment examined the effect of set size on retention, and the second new experiment examined blocking and mixing semantic categories, as well as translation direction, on learning new vocabulary (transfer). Generally, across the six experiments, difficult conditions provided a disadvantage during learning and immediate testing, but made no difference or provided an advantage during relearning and delayed testing. These results suggest that making the initial learning more difficult does not always lead to superior retention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

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19 pages, 2921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interpolated Retrieval of Relevant Material, Not Irrelevant Material, Enhances New Learning of a Video Lecture In-Person and Online

by Zohara Assadipour, Dahwi Ahn and Jason C. K. Chan

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 668; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050668 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 238

Abstract

Interpolated retrieval enhances the learning of new information—a finding known as the forward testing effect. The context change account suggests that learning benefits are due to a shift in internal context, which can be triggered through the retrieval of either content-relevant or content-irrelevant information. In two experiments, we examined whether interpolated episodic, autobiographical, and semantic retrieval would enhance new learning of a video lecture, compared to interpolated review. Participants watched a STEM topic lecture divided into three ~5 min segments and completed their assigned interpolated activity after the first two segments. Across both a laboratory (Experiment 1, N = 249) and online setting (Experiment 2, N = 246), only episodic retrieval enhanced the learning of new material; autobiographical and semantic retrieval (content-irrelevant) did not improve new learning. Critically, we introduced a measure of context change to determine whether the level of engagement in these interpolated activities predicted recall. Engagement correlated with criterial test performance when controlling for effort (seriousness). Our results support a multi-factor explanation for the forward testing effect, providing evidence for both the context change and strategy change accounts, although we emphasize that support for context change should be interpreted with caution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

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23 pages, 1729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Whether Interleaving or Blocking Is More Effective for Long-Term Learning Depends on One’s Learning Strategy

by Jeri L. Little and Jexy A. Nepangue

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050662 - 12 May 2025

Viewed by 166

Abstract

Grouping information into categories enables us to learn, integrate, and apply new information. Presenting items from different categories sequentially (i.e., interleaving) is often more effective than presenting items from a single category sequentially (i.e., blocking), particularly when evaluating learning using memory-based tests. However, blocking can be more effective than interleaving for rule-based learning. Research has investigated optimal sequence (interleaving vs. blocking) for category learning when participants can either memorize or find rules, finding an interaction between learning strategy and sequence; that is, when memorizing, interleaving is more effective than blocking for classifying based on similarity, but when trying to find a rule, blocking is more effective than interleaving for classifying based on the rule. The goal of the present experiments was to replicate and extend this finding by examining transfer immediately after learning and then at a delay of about 48 h. The present results replicate the interaction between sequence and strategy, and show that the pattern persists over a delay. The results also suggest that some rule-based learning may be more resistant than memory-based learning to forgetting. These findings have educational implications for structuring learning as a function of strategy or learning goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

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21 pages, 1917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Snap & Write: Examining the Effect of Taking Photos and Notes on Memory for Lecture Content

by Maribeth M. Trego, Julia S. Soares and Annie S. Ditta

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050561 - 22 Apr 2025

Viewed by 348

Abstract

Three studies investigated the effects of photo and note taking on memory for lecture content in in-person and online environments. Participants watched slideshow lecture videos and were instructed to only watch, take photos, take notes, or simultaneously take both photos and notes of the information on the slides. Memory for on-slide and only said information was tested using fill-in-the-blank questions. Experiment 1, conducted in-person, found a significant photo-taking impairment and an interaction for on-slide information such that there was a larger impairment when participants took both photos and notes compared to when they only took notes. Experiment 2 failed to replicate this interaction; there was an overall photo-taking impairment for on-slide information in an in-person learning environment. We additionally examined mind wandering as a potential mechanism driving these effects but found that it does not provide a sufficient explanation for our results. Experiment 3 used a design similar to Experiments 1 and 2 in an online environment and found a photo-taking benefit for on-slide information. Our results suggest that, in in-person classes, photo taking likely impairs learning, but, in online classes, photo taking may not be as harmful. Participants showed a note taking benefit in Experiments 2 and 3 across both class modalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

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18 pages, 292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Listen or Read? The Impact of Proficiency and Visual Complexity on Learners’ Reliance on Captions

by Yan Li

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040542 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 366

Abstract

This study investigates how Chinese EFL (English as a foreign language) learners of low- and high-proficiency levels allocate attention between captions and audio while watching videos, and how visual complexity (single- vs. multi-speaker content) influences caption reliance. The study employed a novel paused transcription method to assess real-time processing. A total of 64 participants (31 low-proficiency [A1–A2] and 33 high-proficiency [C1–C2] learners) viewed single- and multi-speaker videos with English captions. Misleading captions were inserted to objectively measure reliance on captions versus audio. Results revealed significant proficiency effects: Low-proficiency learners prioritized captions (reading scores > listening, Z = −4.55, p < 0.001, r = 0.82), while high-proficiency learners focused on audio (listening > reading, Z = −5.12, p < 0.001, r = 0.89). Multi-speaker videos amplified caption reliance for low-proficiency learners (r = 0.75) and moderately increased reliance for high-proficiency learners (r = 0.52). These findings demonstrate that low-proficiency learners rely overwhelmingly on captions during video viewing, while high-proficiency learners integrate multimodal inputs. Notably, increased visual complexity amplifies caption reliance across proficiency levels. Implications are twofold: Pedagogically, educators could design tiered caption removal protocols as skills improve while incorporating adjustable caption opacity tools. Technologically, future research could focus on developing dynamic captioning systems leveraging eye-tracking and AI to adapt to real-time proficiency, optimizing learning experiences. Additionally, video complexity should be calibrated to learners’ proficiency levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

14 pages, 1665 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Point Values on Scoring Rubrics Influence Self-Regulated Learning for STEM Material

by Morgan D. Shumaker, Michelle L. Rivers and Sarah K. Tauber

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040532 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 290

Abstract

We examined whether point value information on a scoring rubric influences learners’ study time and concept selection when learning educationally relevant STEM information. Participants (N = 92) engaged in the self-regulated study of five concepts in mineral formation—geological processes, inorganic substances, compounds, elements, and crystalline solids—while having access to a scoring rubric that contained varying point values (concepts were worth 12, 8, or 4 points), uniform point values (all concepts were worth 8 points), or no point values for each concept. Participants chose how long to study and how many times to study each of the concepts. Concepts were selected for study more times when they were high-value than low-value on a grading rubric, an effect that was stronger for some concepts relative to others. Concepts were also studied slightly longer when they were high-value compared to low-value on a rubric. Our findings are consistent with value-directed remembering and agenda-based regulation and suggest that learners can use scoring rubrics to guide their decisions during learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

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18 pages, 1318 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Answer Justification in Multiple-Choice Testing: Effects on Performance and Metacognitive Accuracy

by Spenser A. Clark, Michelle L. Rivers and Acacia L. Overono

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040477 - 6 Apr 2025

Viewed by 648

Abstract

Multiple-choice (MC) tests are widely used in educational settings but have been criticized for promoting passive recognition rather than active retrieval. Our research explores how adding a simple component to MC tests—answer justification—influences test performance and metacognitive accuracy. Across two experiments, university students studied a textbook chapter and completed either a standard MC test (MC-only group) or an MC test requiring them to justify their answers (answer justification group). Participants also provided predictive and postdictive metacognitive judgments. The results showed that the answer justification group significantly outperformed the MC-only group on an immediate test (Experiments 1 and 2) and scored numerically higher on a delayed test two days later (Experiment 2). Further, some initial evidence suggested that metacognitive accuracy was influenced by test type, but future research is needed. These findings support a retrieval-based explanation: generating answer justifications increases test performance by strengthening memory through elaborative retrieval. This study demonstrates that incorporating answer justification into MC tests may improve learning and metacognitive accuracy. We also offer practical suggestions for classroom implementation, considering that answer justification boosts test performance but also imposes a time cost compared to standard MC tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

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15 pages, 912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring-Based Rewards Enhance Both Learning Performance and Metacognitive Monitoring Accuracy

by Shaohang Liu, Christopher Kent and Josie Briscoe

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15030307 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 749

Abstract

Utilization of monetary rewards in educational settings remains contentious due to its potential adverse effects such as performance-related anxiety, metacognitive inaccuracy, and diminished intrinsic motivation. The current study developed a novel reward-based learning paradigm wherein rewards are granted based on monitoring accuracy rather than learning performance. Specifically, learners receive rewards for items that they predict they will remember and subsequently successfully remember them during the final test. Two experiments were conducted to assess the efficacy of this paradigm: Experiment 1 focused on learning Chinese medicine images, while Experiment 2 examined the transfer of math knowledge in classroom settings. The results indicated that rewarding the alignment between performance and metacognitive accuracy improved learning performance compared to both a baseline group and a group receiving performance-based rewards. Furthermore, this paradigm effectively mitigated performance-related anxiety and preserved intrinsic motivation. Overall, our findings highlight the critical role of reward-based learning design and emphasize the importance of addressing metacognitive accuracy alongside performance in educational practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

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24 pages, 307 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Students’, Teachers’, and Parents’ Knowledge About and Perceptions of Learning Strategies

by Amber E. Witherby, Addison L. Babineau and Sarah K. Tauber

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020160 - 1 Feb 2025

Viewed by 927

Abstract

Previous research has demonstrated that students have imperfect knowledge about learning strategies. Moreover, very little is known about teachers’ and parents’ knowledge about learning strategies, which is important as these groups can help to model and teach students effective strategies. The goal of the present research was to add to this literature by measuring students’, teachers’, and parents’ beliefs about several learning strategies that have received empirical scrutiny, using methodology that builds upon prior work. To do so, participants were presented with a series of learning scenarios exemplifying a different learning strategy and rated each individually on effectiveness, familiarity, and their likelihood of using (or recommending) it in the future. Participants had accurate knowledge about effective strategies, rating retrieval practice and distributed study as the most effective learning strategies. There were variations within groups on their levels of familiarity with each strategy, which may have informed their ratings of effectiveness. For instance, participants rated interleaving as less effective compared to blocking but were also less familiar with the former. On a positive note, these outcomes suggest that people generally have good knowledge about learning strategies and underscore the importance of a broad dissemination of educational research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

17 pages, 909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metacognition About Collaborative Learning: Students’ Beliefs Are Inconsistent with Their Learning Preferences

by Yunfeng Wei, Nicholas C. Soderstrom, Michelle L. Meade and Brandon G. Scott

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14111104 - 16 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1434

Abstract

Collaboration plays an important role in educational contexts. However, little is known about students’ metacognitive beliefs about collaboration. The present study used an online survey to investigate students’ beliefs toward group study/recall, their studying preferences, strategies they use when studying individually and in groups, and important characteristics of their group members. Results indicate that, although students generally perceive collaboration as beneficial, they prefer individual study, indicating that their beliefs are inconsistent with their learning preferences. Students report social learning as the primary reason for collaborative benefits but prefer to study alone to minimize distraction and increase personal accountability. Further, they use different strategies when studying individually or in a group. When studying individually, students most frequently report re-reading their notes. However, when studying in groups, students most frequently use strategies emphasizing collaboration and interaction, such as quizzing each other. Also, students prefer to work with group members who are focused, motivated, and hard working. Students’ beliefs, preferences, and favored characteristics of group members are related to their frequency of using study groups. Students’ metacognitive beliefs about collaboration have implications for theories of self-regulated learning and better use of collaboration in educational contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology)

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