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Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Civil Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 August 2025 | Viewed by 10171

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Prof. Dr. Xiao-li Yang

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Guest Editor

School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410017, China
Interests: tunnel engineering; geotechnical engineering; civil engineering
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Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue is a continuation of our previous Special Issue entitled “Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures”.

Geotechnical structures such as slopes, tunnels, retaining walls, and foundations unavoidably suffer from various adverse factors during construction and service. These factors include rainfall, earthquake, groundwater and complex geological conditions, among others. To enhance the structural stability, reinforcement techniques such as piles, bolts and geosynthetics are generally used; these can be classified as favorable factors. To achieve more realistic and reliable solutions, the influences of these adverse and favorable factors should be carefully considered in the design and stability analysis of geotechnical structures. Although approaches to analyzing the stability of geotechnical structures are being increasingly developed, many problems remain to be addressed.

This Special Issue aims to aid in the recognition of the effects of different factors on the stability of geotechnical structures. In this Special Issue, we welcome submissions that contribute to the study of stability in geotechnical structures. Both analytical and numerical studies are welcome, as well as manuscripts presenting experiments or engineering applications.

Prof. Dr. Xiao-li Yang
Guest Editor

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Keywords

geotechnical stability
earth pressure
geological engineering
structure safety analysis

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Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures in Applied Sciences (18 articles)

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

24 pages, 6100 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modified Pseudo-Dynamic Bearing Capacity of Shallow Strip Foundation near Slope on Non-Uniform Soil

by Junrong Xiao, De Zhou, Hong Liao and Jianqun Zhu

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4365; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084365 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 195

Abstract

In engineering practice, many foundations are forced to be placed on slopes, whose stability is deeply affected by seismic force. Therefore, an accurate assessment of the seismic bearing capacity of strip foundations close to slopes is a crucial guide for engineering. Herein, an analytical procedure considering pseudo-dynamic influence is proposed, which offers a new assessment framework for seismic bearing capacity of strip foundations close to slopes on non-uniform soils. Considering the temporal and spatial characteristics of earthquake action, the seismic bearing capacity of foundations at different normalized frequencies is obtained, and depth profiles of seismic acceleration coefficients at different normalized frequencies are presented. The consistency between this paper’s computational results and the published literature substantiates the dependability of the proposed analytical procedure. The sensitivity analyses are carried out for horizontal seismic coefficients, normalized frequencies, damping ratios, internal friction angles, slope angles, cohesion, and non-uniform coefficients, and the results are presented for practice reference in engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 6584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stability of 3D Tunnel Faces in Inclined Layered Soils Under Steady-State Unsaturated Seepage Based on Grey Relational Analysis

by Huanjiang Wu, Yimin Wu, Hong Liao and Jianqun Zhu

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 2453; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15052453 - 25 Feb 2025

Viewed by 313

Abstract

This paper aims to estimate the stability of tunnel faces in inclined layered soils under steady unsaturated seepage conditions, comparing the degree of correlation between the stability of the tunnel face and the influence of three types of parameters: unsaturated soil parameters, spatial geometric parameters of soil stratification, and other relevant factors. The study leverages the suction head distribution in multi-layered unsaturated soils, deriving a new formula to compute the effects of steady-state seepage forces with matric suction distribution in inclined stratified soil layers. A three-dimensional discrete rotational failure mechanism model is employed to calculate the critical support force at the tunnel face. The corresponding parametric analysis involves unsaturated soil parameters, spatial geometric parameters, and the variations in these parameters across different soil layers. Based on this analysis, the varying degrees of correlation between tunnel stability and changes in spatial angle parameters considering soil stratification, and the variations in unsaturated parameters across different soil layers are thoroughly investigated. The proposed framework serves as a valuable tool for quantitatively assessing the effects of unsaturated seepage forces on the stability of tunnel faces situated within complex, inclined, layered soil formations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 2104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stability Analysis and Instability Time Prediction of Tunnel Roofs in a Karst Region Based on Catastrophe Theory

by Yang Zou, Qianlong Tang and Limin Peng

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020978 - 20 Jan 2025

Viewed by 711

Abstract

In order to address the safety construction issues of tunnels in karst areas, this study investigated the stability and instability time prediction of the roof of karst tunnels based on catastrophe theory. By establishing a discrimination equation for the sudden instability of the tunnel roof arch based on the elastic beam model and considering factors such as the self-weight of surrounding rocks and the position of caves, the calculation formula for the safety thickness of the roof of the karst tunnel was obtained. The study analyzed the impact of relevant factors on the safety thickness of the roof. Furthermore, a new method for predicting the instability of the tunnel roof arch was proposed, and it was validated through engineering examples. The results indicate that the water pressure in caves, the size of caves, the elasticity modulus of surrounding rocks, and the position of caves have extremely adverse effects on the safety of the arch roof. The calculation formula for the safety thickness of the roof of the karst tunnel derived from the theory of sudden change demonstrates feasibility and high accuracy in practical engineering applications. The established model for predicting roof instability can effectively forecast the time of roof arch instability in karst tunnels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 4139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Effect on Stability of Tunnel Face Under Unsaturated Seepage Condition

by Yi Xie, Hong Liao and De Zhou

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15010298 - 31 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 726

Abstract

As tunnel excavation technology matures and the demand for transportation infrastructure continues to grow, several high-temperature tunnels have successively emerged in high geothermal areas. The construction of tunnels in high-temperature regions is gradually becoming a new challenge encountered in the engineering field. This study aims to conduct a stability analysis of tunnel face excavation under different temperatures. In addition, soil is often considered to be unsaturated. A framework for assessing the stability of tunnel faces in unsaturated soils under fluctuating temperature conditions is proposed, with an analytical approach. The theoretical basis of this framework is established on the influence of temperature on the shear strength of unsaturated soil. The matric suction of unsaturated soil changes with temperature, thereby inducing variations in shear strength. The temperature-induced variation in apparent cohesion is quantified utilizing a temperature-sensitive effective stress model coupled with a soil–water characteristic curve. These models are subsequently incorporated into the stability assessment of tunnel faces in unsaturated soils under steady-state flow conditions. A three-dimensional logarithmic spiral model is utilized to ascertain the unsupported pressure on tunnel faces, with the safety factor (FS) being calculated through an iterative methodology. Subsequently, a comprehensive suite of parametric studies is undertaken to explore the influence of temperature on tunnel face stability under unsaturated seepage conditions, offering valuable insights for practical engineering endeavors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 2177 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Embedded Retaining Walls Under the Effects of Groundwater Seepage Using a Reliability-Based and Partial Factor Design Approach

by Rok Varga, Bojan Žlender and Primož Jelušič

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 11135; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311135 - 29 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1042

Abstract

In this paper, a comparative analysis of the effects of groundwater, seepage and hydraulic heave on the optimal design of embedded retaining walls is carried out. The optimization model for an optimal retaining wall (ORW) minimizes the total length of the retaining wall considering design constraints. The model is extended to include the probability of failure as an additional constraint. This overcomes the limitations of the partial safety factor approach, which does not fully account for uncertainties in the soil. In contrast, the reliability-based design (RBD) approach integrates these uncertainties and enables an assessment of the impact of seepage and hydraulic heave on the reliability of the structure. A real-coded genetic algorithm was used to determine optimal designs for both optimization methods. The results of the case study show that the addition of seepage (groundwater flow) to the hydrostatic conditions has a modest effect on the embedment depth. The design based on partial safety factors, which takes seepage into account, leads to a slight increase in the embedment depth of 0.94% compared to a retaining wall design that only takes the hydrostatic conditions of the groundwater into account. When designing on the basis of probability failure, the percentage increase in embedment depth due to seepage is between 2.19% and 6.41%, depending on the target probability of failure. Furthermore, the hydraulic heave failure mechanism did not increase the required embedment depth of the retaining wall, which means that the failure mechanism of rotation near the base was decisive for the design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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37 pages, 24198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proactive Measures for Preventing Highway Embankment Failures on Expansive Soil: Developing an Early Warning Protocol

by Masoud Nobahar and Sadik Khan

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(20), 9381; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14209381 - 15 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1113

Abstract

Efficient data use for early warnings is a critical component of failure management, which encompasses activities such as vulnerable zone mapping, prediction, warning elements, prevention, planning, and action. This study proposes an early warning protocol (EWP) against highway embankment (HWE) failures constructed on expansive soil, implementing in filed situ/lab testing, instrumentation, geophysical testing, 2D/3D finite element method (FEM) analysis, development of machine learning-based predictive models, and analysis of the slope vulnerability index (SVI) factor. Six referenced HWEs were investigated, instrumented, monitored, and considered to measure their evaluative parameters (soil in situ, soil index properties, and factor of safety). The field-recorded data were validated using 2D electrical resistivity imaging. The 2D/3D FEM numerical models were developed based on the field-recorded rainfall volume to analyze the flow and coupled flow deformation of the HWEs’ slopes. Predictive models were implemented to analyze the SVI, and the EWP was developed. The action plan was found to be the main component of the proposed EWP. Observing, planning, deciding, and acting are the proposed EWP’s key predecessors. The developed EWP for embankment slope failure mitigation could benefit various public and private transportation agencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 1715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Face Stability Analysis for Tunnels under Steady Unsaturated Seepage and Inhomogeneity Conditions

by Yi Xie, Hong Liao and De Zhou

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(20), 9377; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14209377 - 14 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1076

Abstract

In the field of tunnels, the stability of tunnel faces is generally considered in dry, saturated and homogeneous soils. However, the actual condition of some soils has been found to be inhomogeneous, with unsaturated seepage. In this paper, an analytical method is applied to estimate the safety factor when the supporting force at the tunnel face is zero under steady unsaturated seepage and inhomogeneous conditions. This method combines kinematic limit analysis techniques with strength reduction techniques; an efficient stress formulation utilizing suction stress is employed to determine the apparent cohesive force to obtain the solution of the steady unsaturated seepage problem, and indicators of soil inhomogeneity are attributed to the effect on cohesion. A 3D log-spiral collapse mechanism is used to find the zero supporting pressure and determine the safety factor through an iterative method. This paper analyzes the effect of variations in the unsaturated parameters, inhomogeneity parameters and tunnel dimensional parameters on the stability of the tunnel face. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 18071 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seismic Wave Amplification Characteristics in Slope Sections of Various Inclined Model Grounds

by Sugeun Jeong, Minseo Moon and Daehyeon Kim

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(19), 9014; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14199014 - 6 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1017

Abstract

The collapse of slopes caused by earthquakes can lead to landslides, resulting in significant damage to both lives and structures. Seismic reinforcement of these slopes can protect social systems during an earthquake. In South Korea, where more than 70% of the land is mountainous, the stability of slopes is of paramount importance compared to other countries. While many seismic designs are based on peak ground acceleration (PGA), there is relatively little consideration given to the extent of PGA’s influence, and few studies have been done. This study aims to assess the seismic amplification of slopes with multilayers using a 1 g shaking table and verify the results through numerical analysis after confirming the impact of PGA at specific points. Typically, slope model experiments are conducted on single-layered ground models. However, actual ground conditions consist of multiple layers rather than a single layer, so a multi-layered model was created with different properties for the upper and lower layers. Two multi-layered ground models consisting of two layers were created, one with a flat ground surface and the other with a sloped surface. The properties of the two layers in each model were configured as a single layer to create the slope models. The peak ground acceleration (PGA) of the four ground models was compared, revealing that seismic wave amplification increases as it moves upward, and the amplification is even greater when transitioning from the lower to the upper ground layers, leading to different dynamic behavior of the slope. Through the contour lines, the influence of PGA was further confirmed, and it was found that approximately 60% of the PGA impact occurs at the topmost part of the slope on average. Analysis of the earthquake waves showed that the top of the slope experienced an average amplification of about 31.75% compared to the input motion, while the lower part experienced an average amplification of about 27.85%. Numerical analysis was performed using the ABAQUS program, and the results were compared with the 1 g shaking table experiments through spectral acceleration (SA), showing good agreement with the experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 8026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Stability of a High Fill Slope under Different Gradients and Precipitation Conditions

by Hongda Zhang, Chengda Zhang, Weiqiang Zheng, Xiaoquan Wang and Jiangwei Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7590; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177590 - 28 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1427

Abstract

The stability problem of high fill slopes has always been a research hotspot. Its failure mechanism is complex and prominent, featuring strong concealment, a short occurrence time and great harmfulness. In this paper, the stability of a high fill slope under rainfall conditions will be studied by using indoor tests, numerical simulations, etc. The study is based on a high fill slope in Yichang City. The evolution law of high fill slope stability under the maximum rainfall condition is revealed. The results show the following: The influence of moisture content on stress–strain curves is reflected in both the curve’s shape and the peak value of deviatoric stress. Under the constraint of confining pressure, the curve decreases and the peak value of deviatoric stress decreases with the increase of moisture content at the same confining pressure. The safety factor obtained by a rigid body limit equilibrium analysis and numerical calculation indicates that the safety factor for a 30° slope meets the requirements for slope stability evaluation and remains in a fundamentally stable state. An on-site investigation suggests that surface failure and shallow failure may be primary failure modes for this slope; therefore, it is recommended to implement slope protection measures. This study provides valuable references for similar high fill slopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 3323 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Slope Stability Analysis of Rockfill Embankments Considering Stress-Dependent Spatial Variability in Friction Angle of Granular Materials

by Congyong Ran, Zhengjun Zhou, Xiang Lu, Binfeng Gong, Yuanyuan Jiang and Zhenyu Wu

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(14), 6354; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146354 - 21 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1749

Abstract

Slope stability is a major safety concern of rockfill embankments. Since rockfills are incohesive materials, only friction angle is considered as a shear strength parameter in the slope stability analysis of rockfill embankments. Recently, it was found that confining pressure can significantly affect the mean value and variance of the friction angle of rockfills. Since the confining pressure spatially varies within a rockfill embankment, the effect of stress-dependent spatial variability in the friction angle of rockfills should be investigated for slope stability evaluation of rockfill embankments. In the framework of the Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM), an approach is proposed for the slope stability analysis of rockfill embankments considering the stress-dependent spatial variability in the friction angle. The safety factors of slope stability are computed with variable values of the friction angle at the bases of slices which are determined by the stress-dependent mean value and variance of the friction angle of rockfills. The slope stability of a homogeneous rockfill embankment is analyzed to illustrate the proposed approach, and a parametric analysis is carried out to explore the effect of variation in the parameters of the variance function of friction angle on slope stability. The illustrative example demonstrates that the stress-dependent spatial variability of friction angle along the slip surface is obvious and is affected by the location of the slip surface and the loading condition. The effects of the stress-dependent spatial variability of the friction angle on the slope stability of high rockfill embankments should be considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Slope Stability and Earth Retaining Structures—2nd Edition)

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