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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 September 2025 | Viewed by 9176

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Prof. Dr. Theodore Ganetsos

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Guest Editor

Department of Industrial Design and Production Engineering, University of West Attica, 12244 Athens, Greece
Interests: physics of ionic bonds; non-destructive techniques; materials for photovoltaic applications; identification of materials and pigments; art and technology; archaeometry

Dr. Antreas Kantaros

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Industrial Design and Production Engineering, University of West Attica, 12244 Athens, Greece
Interests: 3D printing; 3D scanning; non-destructive techniques; 3D CAD design; circular economy; sustainability; material science
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The preservation, restoration, and study of cultural heritage have long relied on innovative techniques to safeguard humanity's shared history. The advancement of digital technologies has introduced transformative tools that allow non-invasive, precise, and scalable methods for documenting, analyzing, and preserving artifacts and heritage sites. This Special Issue of Applied Sciences seeks to explore the integration of digital and non-destructive techniques in cultural heritage, offering a platform to discuss the latest applications and advancements in the field.

The contributions in this Special Issue will focus on a range of state-of-the-art methods, including the following:

3D Scanning: High-resolution 3D scanning technologies have revolutionized the documentation and analysis of historical artifacts, enabling detailed geometric data acquisition. Such data facilitate virtual reconstructions, condition assessments, and digital preservation, making it accessible to both researchers and the general public.
3D Printing: The emerging technology of 3D printing has enabled the creation of accurate reproductions of artifacts for educational purposes, exhibitions, and physical restorations. This technology allows for the re-materialization of digital models, providing a tangible way to experience cultural heritage while minimizing risks to original pieces.
Raman Spectroscopy: Raman spectroscopy serves as a non-invasive tool to analyze the molecular composition of pigments, ceramics, and other materials used in historical artifacts. This technique aids in the identification of degradation processes and the provenance of materials, fostering better conservation strategies.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): FTIR is extensively used in cultural heritage studies for the characterization of organic materials such as varnishes, resins, and binders. Its ability to provide molecular fingerprints of complex materials contributes significantly to conservation science.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): SEM offers detailed imagery and elemental analysis of cultural heritage materials at the microscale. This technology supports the study of degradation patterns and assists in the selection of appropriate conservation materials.

Additionally, the Special Issue welcomes papers on the following topics:

X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT): A non-invasive imaging technique providing three-dimensional insights into the internal structures of artifacts without the need for destructive sampling.
Hyperspectral Imaging: Used for the analysis of surface compositions, hyperspectral imaging detects a wide range of wavelengths to identify different materials, helping in detecting hidden layers of artwork or assessing their conditions.
Machine Learning and AI in Heritage Conservation: The integration of machine learning and artificial intelligence tools into the processing of large datasets collected from various scanning and spectroscopy techniques. These tools aid in automating and enhancing data analysis, fostering more efficient decision-making in conservation.

This Special Issue aims to showcase the significant contributions of digital technologies in making cultural heritage more accessible and better preserved. By focusing on non-destructive and highly detailed methods, this collection of papers will demonstrate the synergy between cutting-edge scientific tools and the enduring value of our cultural patrimony.

Prof. Dr. Theodore Ganetsos
Dr. Antreas Kantaros
Guest Editors

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Keywords

non-destructive techniques
3D scanning
3D printing
Raman spectroscopy
FTIR
SEM
XCT
hyperspectral imaging
machine learning
cultural heritage preservation
digital technology

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 2674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combining Optical Scanning and X-Ray Computed Tomography Data for Modeling the Internal and External Geometries of Cultural Artifacts

by Young-Hoon Jo, Dasol Kim and Nyamsuren Davaadorj

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 6239; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15116239 - 1 Jun 2025

Viewed by 410

Abstract

Recording the internal and external shapes of an artifact separately using different digital technologies is inefficient from a data management perspective and limits comprehensive geometric analysis. Thus, in this study, mesh-based convergence modeling was performed to merge optical scanning and X-ray computed tomography (CT) models of the replica of an artifact to obtain a single three-dimensional (3D) model. Optical scanning recorded the precise external surface of the object, and X-ray CT obtained the internal geometry. The X-ray CT model was aligned with the optical scanning model with high dimensional accuracy, and the registration accuracy was analyzed through root-mean-square (RMS) deviation visualization. The average RMS deviation of the replica was found to be 0.13 mm, less than the point spacing obtained using the optical scanning and X-ray CT models. Subsequently, the external surface shape of the X-ray CT model was removed, and this model was merged with the optical scanning model to acquire a complete 3D converged model. The volume of the converged model was 1.8% larger than that of the X-ray CT model due to the external geometry of the optical scanning model. The significance of this research is that the internal structure of the object, which cannot be modeled effectively using optical scanning alone, was determined using X-ray CT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage)

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11 pages, 1669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting the Influence of Climate Change on the Deterioration of Heritage Building Materials Using Photogrammetric Observations

by Luisa Hdz-Gil, Luisa María Gil-Martín, Paz Fernández and Enrique Hernández-Montes

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 6232; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15116232 - 1 Jun 2025

Viewed by 378

Abstract

This study presents a predictive model for the surface deterioration of construction materials exposed to climatic conditions. The model is applied to Santa Pudia calcarenite, the primary construction material used in the heritage buildings of Granada, Spain. Input data on material recession was obtained by using photogrammetric observations. Deterioration was measured in three heritage buildings located in different climatic zones. The methodology proposed enables the deterioration rate of building materials under specific climate conditions to be estimated by exclusively using photogrammetric data. The method was also validated in laboratory tests. The results can be applied to structural analysis and the long-term assessment of cultural heritage vulnerability in the context of future climate change. Notably, the findings indicate that in the case of Santa Pudia calcarenite, global warming slows down the deterioration process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage)

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15 pages, 53844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disseminating the Past in 3D: O Corro dos Mouros and Its Ritual Landscape (Galicia, Spain)

by Mariluz Gil-Docampo, Rocío López-Juanes, Simón Peña-Villasenín, Pablo López-Fernández, Juan Ortiz-Sanz and María Pilar Prieto-Martinez

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 6025; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15116025 - 27 May 2025

Viewed by 382

Abstract

This research presents a methodological approach combining UAV-LiDAR technology and SfM photogrammetry for the comprehensive documentation and analysis of O Corro dos Mouros, a Bronze-to-Iron Age archaeological site in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. The study evaluates both the capabilities and limitations of this integrated approach, focusing on a recently identified Roda-type structure, characterised by circular stone architecture and funerary-ritual functionality, dating between the 15th and 3rd centuries BC. The methodology combines RTK-corrected LiDAR (150 pts/m², ±5 cm accuracy) with 20.4 MP RGB imaging, overcoming vegetation cover while capturing surface details. The results demonstrate the superior performance of the proposed methodology compared to public LiDAR (1 m resolution), offering more detailed and precise microtopographic data of the circular structure. The approach successfully addresses three key challenges: (1) dense vegetation penetration, (2) multi-phase stratigraphic documentation, and (3) non-invasive monitoring of sensitive sites. The centimetre-accurate 3D models (publicly available via Sketchfab) provide both research-grade data for analysing construction phases and contextual relationships with nearby rock art/megaliths, and engaging visualisations for heritage interpretation. This work establishes a replicable technical framework optimised for high-resolution archaeological documentation, with direct applicability to similar ritual landscapes (hillforts, burial mounds) across the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage)

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27 pages, 8766 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heritage in Danger: Digital Conservation and a Reserve for the Future of the Benzú Rock Shelter and Cave (Ceuta, Spain)

by Alejandro Muñoz-Muñoz, José Ramos-Muñoz, Eduardo Vijande-Vila, Juan Jesús Cantillo-Duarte, José Luis Ramírez-Amador, Salvador Domínguez-Bella, Serafín Becerra-Martín, Eduardo Molina-Piernas and Diego Fernández-Sánchez

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 5893; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115893 - 23 May 2025

Viewed by 530

Abstract

The archaeological complex of the Benzú rock shelter and cave, located in Ceuta (Spain), represents a heritage site of significant scientific and historical value that is currently at risk due to natural processes and, in particular, the activity of a nearby quarry. This site has been occupied from the Palaeolithic to the Bronze Age and consequently has been the subject of systematic research since 2002, focusing on its stratigraphic sequence, lithic technology, exploitation of marine resources, and the connection between both shores of the Strait of Gibraltar. With the aim of preserving this endangered heritage, a methodology based on advanced digital technologies such as photogrammetry, 3D laser scanning, and GNSS georeferencing has been implemented. These tools have enabled the creation of high-precision, three-dimensional models of the rock shelter and the cave, which are useful for both documentation and monitoring of their structural condition. In addition, fracture networks have been identified, revealing a high degree of geotechnical vulnerability, exacerbated by blasting activities at the nearby quarry. The project has produced a digital twin of the site in an open access format, serving not only for preventive conservation but also for its enhancement through virtual tours, augmented reality, and accessible outreach activities. This digitalization has been essential to facilitate the access to heritage, particularly in areas that are physically difficult to access. Finally, the integration of these digital resources into institutional policies for the sustainable management of heritage is proposed, highlighting the importance of interdisciplinary approaches that combine archaeology, geotechnology, and scientific communication. The experience at Benzú is presented as a replicable model for the protection, interpretation, and dissemination of heritage sites located in fragile and threatened environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage)

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27 pages, 14735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Traditional and New Sensing Techniques Combination for the Identification of the Forgotten “New Flour-Weighing House” in Valencia, Spain

by Antonio Gómez-Gil, Giacomo Patrucco and José Luis Lerma

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11962; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411962 - 20 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1172

Abstract

In the city of Valencia (Spain), there existed from the Middle Ages until the mid-nineteenth century a building that fulfilled a municipal strategic function: The “new flour-weighing house”. Its purpose was to distribute food to the population and collect the corresponding indirect municipal taxes. Today, the existence of this building is not remembered, neither by scientists nor by citizens, and its importance, location and appearance are unknown. The building investigated, behind which the medieval façade of the “flour-weighing house” is hidden, is the Colomina Palace. In the investigation, its growth phases have been detected, and an idea of its structural organisation has been obtained. Research and investigation have been carried out by consulting historical, cartographic and archival material, together with advanced geomatics techniques, including close-range photogrammetry, terrestrial laser scanning and thermography. The fuse of colour and thermal imagery, together with point clouds and 3D models, help to visualise and check the different spatial transformations of the current “Colomina Palace”, adapting the sequence from medieval times into present. The methodology proposed in this study avoids the need to carry out destructive tests and the processing of permits, which speeds up decision-making and historical architectural reconstruction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage)

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17 pages, 28882 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing 3D-Printed Clay Models for Heritage Restoration Through 3D Scanning

by Eduardo Diz-Mellado, Jose Perez-Fenoy, Miguel Mudarra-Mata, Carlos Rivera-Gómez and Carmen Galan-Marin

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 10898; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142310898 - 25 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2328

Abstract

Recent development of methodologies based on digital twins through 3D scanning and 3D printing has increased over the past decade, offering new possibilities in manufacturing, production and scaling of models’ applications. However, there are few examples of the application of model digitization technologies for the restoration of ceramic-built heritage by means of 3D modelling. That is why this research focuses on the application of these advanced methodologies to the recovery of architectural ceramic ornamental objects in heritage buildings. Deteriorated ceramic pieces are selected and scanned during field campaigns using 3D scanning technology in early 20th century heritage sites in Seville (Spain). The aim is to create accurate replicas of these damaged objects by 3D printing with clay using non-invasive techniques. The study stands out for its practical approach and its implications for the conservation of built cultural heritage. The results proved effective for replacing lost or damaged elements in a heritage context. Once the investment in the necessary equipment and technologies has been made, the use of clay as a material for 3D printing not only proves feasible but also offers advantages in terms of cost and time savings for repairs compared to traditional restoration techniques. In the present investigation the production time of similar pieces using 3D printing took 6.3–10.9 h while traditional methods take over a week. The application of these technologies represents an advancement in integrating modern methods into cultural heritage conservation, opening new possibilities for the preservation of history and art worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage)

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32 pages, 5049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage: Construction and Evaluation Methods of AI-Based Ethnic Music Dataset

by Dayang Chen, Na Sun, Jong-Hoon Lee, Changman Zou and Wang-Su Jeon

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 10811; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142310811 - 22 Nov 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2830

Abstract

This study focuses on the construction and evaluation of a high-quality Chinese Manchu music dataset designed to facilitate Artificial Intelligence (AI) research and applications within cultural heritage and ethnomusicology. Through a systematic collection and organization of diverse Manchu music resources, including folk songs, dance music, and ceremonial pieces, this dataset effectively represents the cultural breadth of Manchu music. The dataset includes digitized and preprocessed audio data, with comprehensive metadata annotations, such as essential information, musical features, and cultural context, creating a robust foundation for AI-based analysis. Experimental evaluations highlight the dataset’s utility across various AI-driven applications: in music classification, using a CNN model, an accuracy of 90% was achieved in the “folk ensemble” category, with an overall accuracy of 85.7% and a precision of 82.3%. For music generation, a Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) model yielded a quality score of 7.8/10 and a Fréchet Audio Distance (FAD) of 0.32. In emotion recognition, the Random Forest model achieved 87% accuracy in identifying the emotion “joy”. These results underscore the dataset’s potential in supporting digital preservation and expanding AI applications in ethnic music classification, generation, and emotional analysis, contributing to both cultural heritage preservation and AI advancement in ethnomusicology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage)

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