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Physiology and Biomechanical Monitoring in Sport

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2026) | Viewed by 12599

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Andrea Ceciliani

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Guest Editor

Department of Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Campus of Rimini, 47921 Rimini, Italy
Interests: education, prevention and health; physical education; movement; sport

Dr. Gabriele Russo

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Guest Editor

Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Via Zamboni, 33, 40126 Bologna, BO, Italy
Interests: sport psychology; decision-making; cognitive function

Dr. Federico Nigro

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Guest Editor

Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 40100 Bologna, Italy
Interests: performance analysis; training load; training monitoring; recovery; sport physiology; training methodology; team sport; biomechanics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Exercise physiology studies the acute and chronic responses and adaptations of the human body to physical activity, encompassing both the physical and psychobiological dimensions. The benefits of muscular exercise are well documented in various populations, with positive effects not only on physical health but also on cognitive function and life expectancy. However, scientific evidence suggests that the level of training of athletes leads to specific responses and adaptations to training loads, with effects not only on physical systems, but also on lifestyle, stress management, sleep hygiene, and many other aspects that determine human health status.

This Special Issue, titled "Physiology and Biomechanical Monitoring in Sport", aims to explore new research and technological advancements in the fields of exercise physiology, training load monitoring, biomechanics, the acute and chronic effects of specific training methods on performance, muscle architecture, biochemical markers, hormone secretion, microbiome composition, body composition, post-exercise recovery, sleep quality and duration, and sport-related cognitive function in different populations of athletes at different levels of performance. Understanding these multidimensional responses is essential to optimize training, improve performance, and support the overall health of athletes. Moreover, this Special Issue will focus on innovative monitoring systems, such as wearable devices, to optimize training monitoring strategies and methodologies. Biomechanical analyses and the development of personalized training protocols based on physiological and biomechanical data are also included.

Prof. Dr. Andrea Ceciliani
Dr. Gabriele Russo
Dr. Federico Nigro
Guest Editors

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Keywords

performance
biomechanics
recovery
fatigue
athletes
hormones
biochemical
training methodology
microbiome
muscle architecture
body composition
cognitive function
sleep

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 6282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biomechanical Evaluation of Head Acceleration and Kinematics in Boxing: The Role of Gloves and Helmets—A Pilot Study

by Monika Ratajczak, Dariusz Leśnik, Rafał Kubacki, Claudia Sbriglio and Mariusz Ptak

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(4), 1999; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16041999 - 17 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Head injuries remain one of the major health concerns in contact sports such as boxing. Despite the widespread use of protective gloves and helmets, their biomechanical effectiveness in mitigating head acceleration and reducing brain injury risk remains uncertain. This study aims to biomechanically assess available boxing equipment solutions and identify the brain–skull system’s response to physical forces from a boxing punch. A dedicated experimental setup was developed using mini triaxial accelerometers and a high-speed camera to measure head accelerations in a Primus unbreakable dummy. Tests were performed using gloves of different masses (0 oz, 10 oz, and 16 oz) and three head protection configurations: no helmet, rugby helmet, and boxing helmet. The resultant accelerations were analyzed and compared across test conditions. Peak wrist accelerations ranged from 195.00 to 271.77 m/s², while head accelerations did not exceed biomechanical injury thresholds. The boxing helmet, composed of multilayer polyurethane foam, did not consistently decrease acceleration; in some cases, it produced higher overloads due to increased head mass and moment of inertia. A rugby helmet made of open-cell EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) foam with lower density exhibited more favorable energy-dissipation characteristics under low-impact conditions. Glove mass also influenced acceleration differently between male and female participants, likely due to variations in punch velocity and force generation. This work is a pilot study using two trained adult volunteers to validate the combined IMU–video measurement framework. The results serve as hypothesis-generating mechanistic observations rather than population-level effect estimates. Protective effectiveness in boxing depends on a complex interaction between material properties, geometry, and user biomechanics. Optimal equipment design should balance energy absorption and mass to minimize both linear and rotational accelerations. Future studies should integrate advanced material modeling and finite element simulations to support the development of adaptive, lightweight protective systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiology and Biomechanical Monitoring in Sport)

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14 pages, 1358 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Different Midsole Cushioning Types on Impact Forces and Joint Stiffness in Heel-Toe Runners

by Hyeong-Sik Kim and Sang-Kyoon Park

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(24), 13132; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152413132 - 13 Dec 2025

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Abstract

(1) Background: The midsole hardness (i.e., cushioning) of running shoes has received significant attention as a crucial element influencing both performance and injury prevention. This research aimed to examine how variations in midsole hardness affect the biomechanical responses of the lower extremities during running. (2) Methods: Twenty-five male recreational runners in their 20 s with no history of musculoskeletal injuries (age: 23.3 ± 4.24 years) were recruited. Custom-made shoes with four different midsole hardness levels (Asker-C 70, 60, 50, and 40) were used, and the mechanical properties of the midsoles were analyzed. Participants ran on an instrumented treadmill at speeds of 2.3 m/s and 3.3 m/s. Ground reaction forces and motion data were collected during the trials. A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to compare groups. (3) Results: In the running trials, a decrease in midsole hardness increased the impact peak (IP) while loading rate (LR) decreased significantly (p < 0.05). In addition, runners wearing shoes with greater cushioning exhibited higher ankle joint stiffness than those wearing harder shoes (p < 0.05). (4) Conclusions: Adjusting joint stiffness appears to be a key strategy employed by runners in response to softer or cushioned running environments (i.e., shoe and surface), ultimately contributing to greater dynamic stability during movement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiology and Biomechanical Monitoring in Sport)

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18 pages, 4276 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of a Four-Week Extreme Heat (100 ± 2 °C) Sauna Baths Program in Combination with Resistance Training on Lower Limb Strength and Body Composition: A Blinded, Randomized Study

by Ignacio Bartolomé, Ángel García, Jesús Siquier-Coll, María Concepción Robles Gil, Francisco J. Grijota and Marcos Maynar-Mariño

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10762; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910762 - 6 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Introduction: Nowadays, there is evidence regarding a beneficial effect of heat on neuromuscular strength and muscle hypertrophy development. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of a 4-week passive sauna bathing program to extreme heat (100 ± 2 °C) as a support for a resistance strength training program on maximal strength and body composition. Methods: 30 young male subjects participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to a Hyperthermia group (HG, n = 14; age: 20.48 (19.12–22–30) years; weight: 76.30 (71.00–79.00) Kg; BMI: 23.92 (22.93–24.87) Kg/m²), or to a Normothermia group (NG, n = 15; age: 19.95 (19.10–21–94) years; weight: 61.70 (59.45–72.90) Kg; BMI: 21.56 (20.42–23.26) Kg/m²). All participants followed the same lower limb strength training program (2 exercises; 4 sets of 10 repetitions at 75% 1RM with progressive loading). Additionally, HG underwent two weekly sessions of exposure to extreme heat in a sauna (100 ± 2 °C and 24 ± 1% relative humidity, four sets of 10 min, 2 days per week). The intervention lasted for 4 weeks, followed by a 4-week deconditioning period. Maximum isometric knee flexion-extension strength, maximum counter-resistance strength, as well as body composition and anthropometric variables were assessed. Results: The HG group significantly increased body weight (p < 0.05) and muscle mass (p < 0.05), while their sum of six skinfolds (Σ6 skinfolds) significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Both groups improved their 1RM squat performance following the intervention program (p < 0.05; HG: r = 0.86; NG: r = 0.89). However, only the HG group continued to improve their squat 1RM after the deconditioning period (p < 0.001; r = 0.93), as well as their leg press 1RM (p < 0.01; r = 0.94). Maximal isometric strength increased only in the NG group at the end of the training program, with a significant increase in knee flexion torque (p < 0.05; r = 0.76). In contrast, the HG group showed significant increases in isometric strength after the deconditioning period in both knee extension (p < 0.05; r = 0.76) and knee flexion (p < 0.05; r = 0.75). Conclusions: A four-week period of passive sauna bathing at extreme heat appears to alter the chronology of strength responses. It also seems to induce favorable responses in terms of strength development and body composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiology and Biomechanical Monitoring in Sport)

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12 pages, 505 KB

Open AccessArticle

Musculoskeletal Pain and Compensatory Mechanisms in Posture and Adaptation to Sport in Players from the Polish Men’s Goalball National Team—Cross Sectional Study

by Barbara Rosołek, Dan Iulian Alexe, Diana Celebańska and Anna Zwierzchowska

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 6363; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15116363 - 5 Jun 2025

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Abstract

The aim of the study was to verify the relationship between musculoskeletal pain of elite Polish goalball players and selected physique and posture characteristics. We examined 12 players. The mean age was 21.8 ± 6.0 years, and a mean training experience of 6.3 ± 3.4 years. Physique (body mass, body height, waist circumference, fat tissue, fat-free soft tissue) and posture (thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis) and range of motion (in the thoracic and lumbar regions) were assessed. The incidences and locations of musculoskeletal pain were identified using the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire, covering the period from the last seven days (NMQ-7) and six months (NMQ-6). Due to the small group size, non-parametric tests (Spearman’s rank correlation) were used. The significance level was set at p < 0.05. Players were more likely to report musculoskeletal pain in the last six months than in the previous week. Pain reported in both NMQ6 and NMQ7 was most common in the wrists/hands and lower back, and, in NMQ6, also in the shoulders and ankles/feet. There were significant negative correlations of total NMQ7 with lumbar lordosis angle in the habitual standing position (R = −0.6; p = 0.04), trunk flexion (R = −0.8, p = 0.002), and trunk extension (R = −0.6; p = 0.03), and a positive correlation with thoracic kyphosis angle in trunk flexion (R = 0.8, p = 0.005). There was a statistically significant, inversely proportional relationship of thoracic kyphosis angle values in the habitual position (R = −0.58; p = 0.049) and thoracic kyphosis angle THA in trunk flexion (R = −0.6; p = 0.038) with time of disability. Relationships between some body posture parameters and musculoskeletal pain in the studied athletes were also noted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiology and Biomechanical Monitoring in Sport)

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