Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease

14 pages, 7437 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Dynamics and Sterilization Range of Incompatible Aedes albopictus Males: Advancing Toward an Optimized IIT Approach

by Elena Lampazzi, Chiara Virgillito, Beniamino Caputo, Giulia Lombardi, Greta Santarelli, Riccardo Moretti and Maurizio Calvitti

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020045 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

The Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT) is a species-specific, eco-friendly mosquito control method that relies on releasing Wolbachia-infected males, which induce cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), rendering eggs inviable when mating with wild females. Aiming at optimizing IIT protocols in terms of cost-effectiveness, data on [...] Read more.

The Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT) is a species-specific, eco-friendly mosquito control method that relies on releasing Wolbachia-infected males, which induce cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), rendering eggs inviable when mating with wild females. Aiming at optimizing IIT protocols in terms of cost-effectiveness, data on incompatible male dispersal and survival and the distance- and time-related impact of induced sterility are fundamental. This study plans to fill this gap and reports findings from a two-year field trial (2022–2023) at the ENEA-Casaccia Research Center, based on single-spot releases of incompatible Aedes albopictus males (ARwP strain). Male releases were carried out in late September 2022 (~15,000 released males) and the early Ae. albopictus season (at the end of June 2023; ~24,000 released males). Fifty-eight ovitraps were located at a 20–900 m distance from the ARwP release spot and were monitored weekly from May to November to assess egg hatching rates and measure CI effects in relation to both distance and time. Following the 2023 release, samples of adults were collected at increasing distances from the release site and at multiple post-release time points to assess, individually, wild female fertility and ARwP male dispersal and survival using Wolbachia as a genetic marker. Statistical analyses revealed that: (a) the highest reduction in the egg hatching was found within 100 m from the release spot (46.5% and 19.9%, respectively, in 2022 and 2023) but remained significant even at greater distances (29.9% and 7.7% at 300 m, respectively, in 2022 and 2023); (b) accordingly, the highest reduction in the wild female fertility occurred within 100 m from the release spot (47.3%), but similar effects were recognizable up to 600 m; (c) the overflooding ratio of the ARwP males did not significantly differ between 3 and 11 days after the release, with ARwP males remaining active up to 18 days and dispersing as far as 400 m. These results demonstrate the potential of localized, non-inundative IIT trials to furnish clues for the setup of spatially optimized release strategies, especially in scaled-up applications. The study also emphasizes the need for standardized assessment tools and further research regarding environmental and behavioral factors influencing long-term suppression outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Vector-Borne Diseases)

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18 pages, 5321 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Next- and Third-Generation Sequencing Platforms for Chikungunya Virus Whole-Genome Sequencing Using a Lineage-Inclusive Primer Set During the 2025 Foshan Outbreak

by Penghui Jia, Xiao Cong, Chang Zhang, Zhe Liu, Xiaofang Peng, Juan Su, Qiqi Tan, Shen Huang, Changyun Sun, Xin Zhang and Baisheng Li

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020044 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) poses an increasing global public health threat, as evidenced by the significant 2025 Foshan outbreak in China. Rapid, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) is critical for outbreak response but is challenged by primer mismatches across diverse lineages and a lack of direct [...] Read more.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) poses an increasing global public health threat, as evidenced by the significant 2025 Foshan outbreak in China. Rapid, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) is critical for outbreak response but is challenged by primer mismatches across diverse lineages and a lack of direct sequencing platform comparisons. To address this, we developed a novel lineage-inclusive primer set and performed parallel WGS on 24 clinical samples from the outbreak using both Illumina (NGS) and Oxford Nanopore Technologies (TGS) platforms. Our lineage-inclusive primer set successfully amplified full-length CHIKV genomes across all samples. Comparisons revealed that Illumina NGS provided higher raw read accuracy, while Nanopore TGS achieved more complete coverage of terminal UTRs with a faster turnaround time. Crucially, after polishing, variant calls between the two platforms were 100% concordant. Phylogenetic analysis was consistent with a single introduction event, with all outbreak isolates forming a monophyletic clade within the ECSA lineage most closely related to contemporaneous strains from Réunion Island. This study validates a lineage-inclusive amplicon-based sequencing strategy and demonstrates that NGS and TGS offer complementary advantages. When integrated, they provide a robust framework for real-time genomic surveillance, enhancing preparedness and guiding public health interventions against CHIKV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Infectious Diseases)

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16 pages, 2763 KB

Open AccessArticle

Global, Regional, and National Burden of Tuberculosis Among Children: A Population-Based Study

by Leiwen Fu, Ke Liu, Yuxian Sun, Wei Shu, Yujia Ning, Yang Liu, Jian Du and Liang Li

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020043 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Background: Tuberculosis remains a major global public health challenge, particularly among children. This study aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the global, regional, and national burden of tuberculosis among children (0–14 years) using data from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021 [...] Read more.

Background: Tuberculosis remains a major global public health challenge, particularly among children. This study aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the global, regional, and national burden of tuberculosis among children (0–14 years) using data from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021 study. Methods: Data on the incidence of tuberculosis (drug-susceptible, MDR-TB, and XDR-TB), as well as disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), among children aged 0–14 years in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2021 were obtained from the GBD 2021 study. Estimated annual percentage changes (EAPCs) in age-standardised incidence rates (ASIRs) and DALY rate were calculated overall and stratified by age, sex, and sociodemographic index (SDI) to quantify temporal trends. Spearman correlation analyses were performed to assess associations between tuberculosis burden and SDI. Results: In 2021, there were an estimated 759,300 new tuberculosis cases (ASIR: 37.7 per 100,000 population) among children globally, including 32,515 cases of MDR-TB (ASIR: 1.6) and 1193 cases of XDR-TB (ASIR: 0.1). Both global ASIR and DALY rate exhibited a declining trend from 1990 to 2021, with EAPC of −2.61% (95%CI: −2.74 to −2.47) and −4.38% (−4.61 to −4.14), respectively. From 1990 to 2021, High-income North America was the only GBD region with an increasing ASIR for tuberculosis (EAPC = 1.12, 95% CI: 0.61 to 1.64). From 1990 to 2021, there was no significant change in ASIR of MDR-TB (EAPC = 1.18, 95% CI: −0.16 to 2.54). However, eight of the 21 GBD regions exhibited increasing trends in the ASIR of MDR-TB, with the largest increase observed in Oceania (11.99, 10.49 to 13.52), followed by Central Asia (9.76, 6.48 to 13.13) and South Asia (5.71, 3.10 to 8.38). A strong negative correlation was observed between tuberculosis burden and SDI, with the highest disease burden concentrated in low-SDI regions. Conclusions: Achieving elimination targets will require stronger diagnostics and treatment for childhood tuberculosis, alongside reduced transmission, improved infection detection, and preventive therapy for exposed children, especially those under 5 years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis in Special Populations: Epidemiology and Evidence-Based Interventions)

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11 pages, 5584 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical Properties of Anopheles Mosquito Larval Habitats in Nouakchott, Mauritania

by Mohamed Haidy Massa, Osman Abdillahi Guedi, Nicolas Gomez, Ali Ould Mohamed Salem Boukhary, Sébastien Briolant and Mohamed Aly Ould Lemrabott

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020042 - 3 Feb 2026

Abstract

Malaria remains one of the main public health problems in Mauritania, and it is essential to identify the factors that determine the distribution and productivity of Anopheles breeding sites in order to develop more effective control strategies. A longitudinal survey with repeated measurements [...] Read more.

Malaria remains one of the main public health problems in Mauritania, and it is essential to identify the factors that determine the distribution and productivity of Anopheles breeding sites in order to develop more effective control strategies. A longitudinal survey with repeated measurements was conducted in Nouakchott between May 2023 and April 2024, in order to examine the factors influencing the distribution and productivity of Anopheles larval habitats. The larvae were collected by immersion in 60 water points, once a month during the dry season and twice a month during the rainy season, for a total of 294 observations. The physical and chemical characteristics of the sites were also measured. Logistic regression analyses with random effects showed that the presence of Culex and Aedes larvae, pH, and temperature were statistically significantly associated with positive water collection for Anopheles larvae (aOR = 3.03, 95%CI [1.14–8.07], p-value = 0.026; aOR = 0.18, 95%CI [0.05–0.60], p-value = 0.006; aOR = 3.17, 95%CI [1.32–7.61], p-value = 0.010 and aOR = 5.95, 95%CI [2.09–16.92], p-value < 0.001, respectively). Only Anopheles multicolor and An. arabiensis were present in Nouakchott. Our results could help health authorities by guiding the destruction of breeding sites with biological larvicides or physical elimination of peridomestic habitats. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Vector-Borne Diseases)

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16 pages, 1782 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Antiviral Activity of Red Algae Extracts from Chondracanthus teedei var. lusitanicus and Osmundea pinnatifida Against Coxsackievirus A12 and a Lentiviral Vector

by Nanci Santos-Ferreira, Clévio Nóbrega, Marta Mota, Luís Pereira de Almeida, Leonel Pereira, Teresa Gonçalves and Célia Nogueira

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020041 - 31 Jan 2026

Abstract

Infectious diseases remain a major global health challenge, underscoring the need for safe and accessible antiviral therapies. Natural products, particularly marine macroalgae, are promising sources of bioactive compounds with antiviral properties. This study evaluated the antiviral activity of extracts from two red algae [...] Read more.

Infectious diseases remain a major global health challenge, underscoring the need for safe and accessible antiviral therapies. Natural products, particularly marine macroalgae, are promising sources of bioactive compounds with antiviral properties. This study evaluated the antiviral activity of extracts from two red algae collected along the Portuguese coast: two life stages (tetrasporophyte and female gametophyte) of Chondracanthus teedei var. lusitanicus and the algae Osmundea pinnatifida. Antiviral effects were assessed against Coxsackievirus A12 (CVA12) and a lentivirus (LV) vector model. Extracts from both algae inhibited viral replication in vitro at non-cytotoxic concentrations. The tetrasporophyte extract of C. teedei exhibited virucidal activity against CVA12, and the results are consistent with interference with multiple stages of the viral life cycle, while also inducing an antiviral state in HEK-293T cells against LV infection. The female gametophyte extract affected early stages of CVA12 and LV infection and showed potential virucidal activity. O. pinnatifida demonstrated the strongest antiviral effects against both viruses. These findings highlight the antiviral potential of these red algal extracts and warrant further in vivo evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Infectious Diseases)

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14 pages, 1011 KB

Open AccessArticle

AI-Assisted Differentiation of Dengue and Chikungunya Using Big, Imbalanced Epidemiological Data

by Thanh Huy Nguyen and Nguyen Quoc Khanh Le

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020040 - 30 Jan 2026

Abstract

Dengue and chikungunya are endemic arboviral diseases in many low- and middle-income countries, often co-circulating and presenting with overlapping symptoms that hinder early diagnosis. Timely differentiation is critical, especially in resource-limited settings where laboratory testing is unavailable. We developed and evaluated machine-learning (ML)- [...] Read more.

Dengue and chikungunya are endemic arboviral diseases in many low- and middle-income countries, often co-circulating and presenting with overlapping symptoms that hinder early diagnosis. Timely differentiation is critical, especially in resource-limited settings where laboratory testing is unavailable. We developed and evaluated machine-learning (ML)- and deep-learning (DL) models to classify dengue, chikungunya, and discarded cases using a large-scale, real-world dataset of over 6.7 million entries from Brazil (2013–2020). After applying the Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique (SMOTE) to address class imbalance, we trained six ML models and one artificial neural network (ANN) using only demographic, clinical, and comorbidity features. The Random Forest model achieved strong multi-class classification performance (Recall: 0.9288, the Area Under the Curve (AUC): 0.9865). The ANN model excelled in identifying chikungunya cases (Recall: 0.9986, AUC: 0.9283), suggesting its suitability for rapid screening. External validation confirmed the generalizability of our models, particularly for distinguishing discarded cases. Our models demonstrate high-accuracy in differentiating dengue and chikungunya using routinely collected clinical and epidemiological data. This work supports the development of Artificial Intelligence-powered decision-support tools to assist frontline healthcare workers in under-resourced settings and aligns with the One Health approach to improving surveillance and diagnosis of neglected tropical diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance, Modelling, and Risk Mapping of Tropical Infectious Diseases)

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14 pages, 3636 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Dynamics Versus Vertical Stratification of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in an Atlantic Forest Remnant, Brazil: A Focus on the Mansoniini Tribe

by Cecília Ferreira de Mello, Wellington Thadeu de Alcantara Azevedo, Shayenne Olsson Freitas Silva, Samara Campos Alves and Jeronimo Alencar

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020039 - 30 Jan 2026

Abstract

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) exhibit vertical stratification patterns in forest environments, a fundamental ecological aspect for understanding niche occupation patterns, host-seeking behavior, and consequently arbovirus transmission mechanisms. Despite the relevance of this topic, available studies mostly focus on genera such as Aedes, Haemagogus [...] Read more.

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) exhibit vertical stratification patterns in forest environments, a fundamental ecological aspect for understanding niche occupation patterns, host-seeking behavior, and consequently arbovirus transmission mechanisms. Despite the relevance of this topic, available studies mostly focus on genera such as Aedes, Haemagogus, and Sabethes which are traditionally associated with arbovirus transmission. There are still important gaps regarding stratification and seasonality in the Mansoniini tribe, whose biology and epidemiological role remain underexplored, especially in highly biodiverse ecosystems such as the Atlantic Forest. This study evaluated the influence of seasonality and vertical stratification on the mosquito community, with a detailed focus on the Mansoniini tribe, in an Atlantic Forest fragment in Brazil, between May 2023 and December 2024. Captures were performed monthly using CDC light traps positioned at 1.5 m and 10 m heights, and specimens were morphologically identified. A total of 880 mosquitoes from nine genera and 24 species were captured, of which 91 (10.3%) belonged to the Mansoniini tribe. The most abundant species were Coquillettidia fasciolata and Mansonia titillans, recorded in both strata. Our results indicate no marked vertical segregation for the studied mosquito community in this specific location, but a strong influence of seasonality, particularly for the Mansoniini tribe, reinforcing the role of meteorological data on the population structure of these species. These site-specific findings offer a foundational ecological portrait and a robust methodological template for a neglected taxon. They generate critical, testable hypotheses about niche partitioning in fragmented forests and underscore the necessity for broader spatial replication to disentangle the relative influence of seasonal versus vertical drivers in similar ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne Diseases and Public Health Challenges)

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14 pages, 509 KB

Open AccessArticle

Low Bone Mineral Density in Men Living with HIV on Tenofovir Antiretroviral Therapy: A Cross-Sectional Exploratory Study from a Malaysian Tertiary Hospital

by Muhamad Riduan Daud, Petrick Periyasamy, Kok-Yong Chin, Najma Kori, Ummu Afeera Zainulabid, Sheng Qian Yew, Nur Ezzaty Mohammad Kazmin and Xiong Khee Cheong

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020038 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background and objectives: Low bone mineral density (BMD) is a recognized complication in people living with HIV (PLHIV) that remains under-addressed, particularly in Malaysia. Known contributing factors for low BMD include advanced age, HIV infection itself, and prolonged use of anti-retroviral therapy (ART), [...] Read more.

Background and objectives: Low bone mineral density (BMD) is a recognized complication in people living with HIV (PLHIV) that remains under-addressed, particularly in Malaysia. Known contributing factors for low BMD include advanced age, HIV infection itself, and prolonged use of anti-retroviral therapy (ART), particularly tenofovir-based regimens. There are limited data on the burden of low BMD in the HIV population in Malaysia. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of low BMD among men living with HIV on tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) and to identify the possible associated factors compared to a group of healthy individuals matched for age and ethnicity. Methods: This is single-center cross-sectional study involved 112 men (56 HIV-positive individuals and 56 uninfected individuals matched for age and ethnicity) who underwent dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans of the femoral neck and lumbar spine. Sociodemographic, clinical lifestyle, and laboratory data, including FRAX scores for those aged more than 40 years old, were collected. Results: The prevalence of low BMD at the femoral neck in HIV-infected men on tenofovir disoproxil fumarate was significantly higher compared to healthy individuals (32.1% vs. 16.1%; p < 0.05). Low BMD prevalence at the lumbar spine was higher in the HIV group (8.9% vs. 3.6%; p = 0.463) but was not statistically significant. Older age and low body mass index (BMI) were found to be significantly associated with reduced BMD in HIV patients. Chronic kidney disease stage 2 and 3a was linked with low femoral neck BMD. HIV-related factors (duration of illness, duration of ART exposure, and CD4+ counts) showed no significant associations to low BMD. The 10-year risk of major osteoporotic and hip fractures estimated by the FRAX tool was low in both groups, and no participant exceeded the recommended intervention threshold. Conclusions: Men with HIV on tenofovir disoproxil fumarate have a higher prevalence of low BMD, particularly at the femoral neck. Traditional risk factors were more closely associated with low BMD compared to HIV-related factors and specific markers, supporting the need for routine bone health screening and preventive strategies in this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV Testing and Antiretroviral Therapy)

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12 pages, 732 KB

Open AccessPerspective

Reframing TB Care: A Perspective on Multimorbidity-Centered Care for People with TB

by Alexa Tabackman, Sadie Cowan, Claire Calderwood and Pranay Sinha

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020037 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

Tuberculosis (TB) rarely occurs in isolation; most people with TB experience multiple coexisting conditions, including HIV, diabetes, undernutrition, depression, and substance use disorders, which worsen disease severity and compromise treatment outcomes. Although the World Health Organization has issued disease-specific guidance for managing key [...] Read more.

Tuberculosis (TB) rarely occurs in isolation; most people with TB experience multiple coexisting conditions, including HIV, diabetes, undernutrition, depression, and substance use disorders, which worsen disease severity and compromise treatment outcomes. Although the World Health Organization has issued disease-specific guidance for managing key comorbidities, TB care remains largely siloed and poorly equipped to address the growing burden of multimorbidity, particularly in African health systems. In this perspective article, we propose a phased framework for multimorbidity-centered TB care. The first phase emphasizes systematic screening for common comorbidities and establishment of basic referral pathways. The second phase focuses on strengthening coordination between TB programs and existing health and social services, including task sharing and longitudinal follow-up. The third phase advances toward fully integrated, co-located, multidisciplinary models of care that embed TB services within broader multimorbidity platforms. Together, this framework offers a pragmatic roadmap for TB programs to deliver more person-centered, equitable, and efficient care, strengthen primary care systems, and accelerate progress toward ending TB as a public health threat in Africa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis Control in Africa and Asia)

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13 pages, 1058 KB

Open AccessArticle

AI-Driven Tuberculosis Hotspot Mapping to Optimize Active Case-Finding: Implementing the Epi-Control Platform in Uganda

by Geofrey Amanya, Sumbul Hashmi, Jessica Sarah Stow, Philip Tumwesigye, Bernadette Nkhata, Kelvin Roland Mubiru, Anne-Laure Budts, Matthys Gerhardus Potgieter, Seyoum Dejene Balcha, Muzamiru Bamuloba, Andiswa Zitho, Luzze Henry, Mary G. Nabukenya-Mudiope and Caroline Van Cauwelaert

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020036 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

Tuberculosis remains a major public health concern in Uganda, one among the thirty high TB burden countries globally. Despite national progress, gaps persist due to asymptomatic disease, diagnostic limitations, and uneven access to healthcare within the country. This study implemented the Epi-control platform, [...] Read more.

Tuberculosis remains a major public health concern in Uganda, one among the thirty high TB burden countries globally. Despite national progress, gaps persist due to asymptomatic disease, diagnostic limitations, and uneven access to healthcare within the country. This study implemented the Epi-control platform, an AI-driven predictive modelling tool, to predict community-level hotspots and support data-driven active case-finding (ACF). Using retrospective chest X-ray screening data, we integrated demographic, environmental, and human development indicators from open-source databases to model TB risk at sub-parish level. A proprietary Bayesian modelling framework was deployed and validated by comparing TB yields between predicted hotspots and non-hotspot locations. Across Uganda, the model identified significantly higher TB yields in hotspot areas (risk ratio = 1.69, 95% CI 1.41–2.02; p < 0.001). The Central and Western regions showed the highest concentrations of hotspots, consistent with their population density and urbanization patterns. The results show that the model prioritized areas with higher observed ACF yield in this retrospective dataset, supporting its potential operational use for screening prioritization under similar implementation conditions. The results demonstrate that AI-based predictive modelling can enhance the efficiency of ACF by targeting high-risk areas for screening. Integrating such predictive tools within national TB programmes may support screening planning and resource prioritization; prospective evaluation and external validation are needed to assess generalisability and incremental impact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrating Data-Driven Insights into Mathematical Modeling of Infectious Diseases)

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12 pages, 598 KB

Open AccessArticle

Laboratory-Based Surveillance and Genetic Diversity of Enteric Adenovirus Among Children in Argentina, 2022–2024

by Juan Ignacio Degiuseppe, Paula Mabel Moron, Christian Barrios Mathieur and Argentinean Surveillance Network for Viral Gastroenteritis

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020035 - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Enteric adenoviruses are recognized causes of pediatric acute gastroenteritis, yet national-level data on their epidemiology and genetic diversity in Argentina remain limited. This study aimed to describe the laboratory-based surveillance of enteric adenoviruses and to characterize the circulating genotypes among children during the [...] Read more.

Enteric adenoviruses are recognized causes of pediatric acute gastroenteritis, yet national-level data on their epidemiology and genetic diversity in Argentina remain limited. This study aimed to describe the laboratory-based surveillance of enteric adenoviruses and to characterize the circulating genotypes among children during the 2022–2024 period. Data were obtained from the Argentine National Health Surveillance System, including weekly aggregated reports of adenovirus testing results from clinical laboratories nationwide. Detection frequencies were analyzed by year, age group, clinical setting, geographic region, and epidemiological week. Molecular characterization was performed using partial hexon gene sequencing. A total of 22,826 stool samples were tested, of which 1530 (6.7%) were positive for adenovirus, with no significant differences in positivity across years. Detection rates were highest among children under 1 year of age and were consistently greater in outpatient and emergency department settings compared with hospitalized patients. No clear seasonal pattern was observed. Genotyping revealed a predominance of HAdV-F41, with sporadic detection of non-enteric adenovirus types. These findings provide the first nationwide overview of enteric adenovirus circulation and genetic diversity in Argentina, highlighting stable transmission patterns and supporting the value of sustained laboratory surveillance to better characterize viral gastroenteritis etiology in the post-rotavirus vaccination era. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Enteropathogens in Pediatric Populations)

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11 pages, 513 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a TaqMan qPCR Method for Detecting Angiostrongylus cantonensis (Rhabditida: Angiostrongylidae) Infection in Snails from Hainan Province, China

by Kun Wang, Tian Tian, Yunhai Guo, Muxin Chen, Xiaonen Wu, Zhiying Hou, Binbin Xie, Fanna Wei, Zhiheng Qi, Zhisheng Dang, Dingwei Sun, Yang Hong, Jun-Hu Chen and Yue Wang

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11020034 - 23 Jan 2026

Abstract

Angiostrongylus cantonensis (A. cantonensis) is the primary causative agent of human angiostrongyliasis and is widely distributed in Southeast Asia and China, with increasing reports from the Americas. Achatina fulica (A. fulica), Pomacea canaliculata (P. canaliculata), and slugs [...] Read more.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis (A. cantonensis) is the primary causative agent of human angiostrongyliasis and is widely distributed in Southeast Asia and China, with increasing reports from the Americas. Achatina fulica (A. fulica), Pomacea canaliculata (P. canaliculata), and slugs constitute established intermediate hosts of A. cantonensis, whereas Camaena hainanensis (C. hainanensis) has been newly reported as a host species in Hainan. A TaqMan quantitative PCR (qPCR) method assay targeting a novel genomic region of A. cantonensis was developed to detect infection in 150 snails collected from Hainan Province, China. The assay was employed to detect the parasite larvae across various snail tissues (lung sac, mucus, and foot), and its performance was compared with conventional lung sac microscopy. Out of the 120 A. fulica examined, 75 tested positive using the qPCR assay, yielding a significantly higher detection rate than lung-sac examination (p < 0.05). Significant differences were also observed in the positivity rates across the three snail tissues (lung sac, mucus, and foot) (p < 0.05), with the lung sac showing the highest rate of infection. Importantly, the detection of A. cantonensis DNA in snail mucus highlights its potential for development as a non-invasive diagnostic sample. Additionally, C. hainanensis was identified as a new host of A. cantonensis in Hainan, suggesting its possible contribution to parasite transmission. The newly developed qPCR assay demonstrated superior sensitivity (reflected by lower Ct values) compared with previously published TaqMan qPCR methods. The established qPCR method provides a sensitive and non-invasive tool for detecting A. cantonensis in snails, and can be applied for monitoring and early warning of parasite prevalence and transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne Diseases and Public Health Challenges)

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2 pages, 135 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Insecticide Resistance and Vector Control

by Adriana E. Flores, Jesus A. Davila-Barboza and Alan E. Juache-Villagrana

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11010033 - 22 Jan 2026

Abstract

Insecticide-based strategies have been central to vector control programs targeting diseases of human and veterinary importance for decades [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance and Vector Control)

4 pages, 598 KB

Open AccessReply

Reply to Wüster et al. On the Importance of Correct Snake Identification. Comment on “Chippaux et al. Snakebites in Cameroon by Species Whose Effects Are Poorly Described. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2024, 9, 300”

by Jean-Philippe Chippaux and Fabien Taieb

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11010032 - 22 Jan 2026

Abstract

As Wüster et al [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snake Bite: Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment)

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5 pages, 411 KB

Open AccessComment

On the Importance of Correct Snake Identification. Comment on Chippaux et al. Snakebites in Cameroon by Species Whose Effects Are Poorly Described. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2024, 9, 300

by Wolfgang Wüster, David A. Warrell and David J. Williams

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11010031 - 22 Jan 2026

Abstract

One of the major obstacles to improving the management of snakebite envenoming is the lack of accurate identification of species responsible for clinical cases, which prevent the improvement of definitions of species-specific syndromes [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snake Bite: Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment)

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11 pages, 700 KB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiological Characteristics of Human Rabies in Chongqing, China, 2016–2024

by Longyu Chen, Yi Yuan, Yu Xia, Jiang Long, Zhijin Li, Tingting Li and Li Qi

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11010030 - 22 Jan 2026

Abstract

(1) Background: Human rabies continues to be a significant public health challenge and imposes a heavy disease burden. The epidemiological characteristics and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) of human rabies in Chongqing were analyzed to provide a scientific basis for its prevention and control in [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Human rabies continues to be a significant public health challenge and imposes a heavy disease burden. The epidemiological characteristics and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) of human rabies in Chongqing were analyzed to provide a scientific basis for its prevention and control in Chongqing. (2) Methods: Data and case investigation forms of the human rabies epidemic in Chongqing from 2016 to 2024 were collected and analyzed using descriptive epidemiological methods. (3) Results: From 2016 to 2024, 84 human rabies cases were reported in Chongqing, with an average annual incidence rate of 0.03 per 100,000 population. Among the cases, 72.6% were aged 45 and above. Farmers constituted the primary infected group (73.8%). Analysis of exposure patterns and PEP revealed that 92.4% of cases involved dog transmission, with domestic dogs responsible for 65.2% and stray dogs for 31.8%. After exposure, 51.5% received no treatment, while only 6 individuals were vaccinated against rabies. (4) Conclusions: Although rabies incidence in Chongqing is low, dogs remain the primary source, and post-exposure vaccination is often delayed. Strengthening health education and dog immunization is crucial for supporting the global “Zero by 30” target. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rabies Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Studies)

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4 pages, 179 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Beyond Borders—Tackling Neglected Tropical Viral Diseases

by Jelena Prpić

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11010029 - 21 Jan 2026

Abstract

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) comprise a diverse group of infections that disproportionately affect impoverished populations in tropical and subtropical regions [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beyond Borders—Tackling Neglected Tropical Viral Diseases)

22 pages, 1243 KB

Open AccessReview

Global Lymphatic Filariasis Post-Validation Surveillance Activities in 2025: A Scoping Review

by Holly Jian, Harriet Lawford, Angus McLure, Colleen Lau and Adam Craig

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11010028 - 19 Jan 2026

Abstract

Following World Health Organization (WHO) validation of lymphatic filariasis (LF) elimination as a public health problem, countries are required to implement post-validation surveillance (PVS) to detect potential resurgence and ensure sustained elimination. WHO’s guidelines released in 2025 recommend implementation of at least two [...] Read more.

Following World Health Organization (WHO) validation of lymphatic filariasis (LF) elimination as a public health problem, countries are required to implement post-validation surveillance (PVS) to detect potential resurgence and ensure sustained elimination. WHO’s guidelines released in 2025 recommend implementation of at least two of four PVS strategies—targeted surveys, integration into standardised surveys, health facility-based screening, and molecular xenomonitoring (MX) of mosquitoes. This review synthesised global evidence on PVS activities from 2007 to 2025 in the 23 countries and territories validated as having eliminated LF. Studies were identified through PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Web of Science, and the WHO Institutional Repository for Information Sharing (IRIS). Data on publication information, surveillance strategies, priority populations, and operational challenges and enablers were extracted. Narrative synthesis using deductive content analysis was applied. Thirty documents from 17 countries were included. Targeted surveillance and integration of PVS with other health programmes were the most common approaches noted (reported in ten and nine countries, respectively), followed by MX (seven countries) and health facility-based screening (four countries). Surveillance often focused on migrants and previous hotspots, with operational challenges linked to limited funding, workforce, and supply chains. Documents indicated that Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, and South Korea developed sustained PVS through national policies and domestic funding. Findings highlight the need for clear, contextualised guidance to operationalise sustainable PVS in different settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Eliminated and Near-Eliminated Infectious Disease in the Western Pacific Region)

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17 pages, 1227 KB

Open AccessArticle

Barriers and Facilitators to Implementing Post-Validation Surveillance of Lymphatic Filariasis in Pacific Island Countries and Territories: A Conceptual Framework Developed from Qualitative Data

by Harriet L. S. Lawford, Holly Jian, ‘Ofa Tukia, Joseph Takai, Clément Couteaux, ChoCho Thein, Ken Jetton, Teanibuaka Tabunga, Temea Bauro, Roger Nehemia, Charlie Ave, Grizelda Mokoia, Peter Fetaui, Fasihah Taleo, Cheryl-Ann Udui, Colleen L. Lau and Adam T. Craig

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2026, 11(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed11010027 - 18 Jan 2026

Abstract

Eight Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) have been validated by the World Health Organization (WHO) as having eliminated lymphatic filariasis (LF) as a public health problem. WHO recommends that these countries implement post-validation surveillance (PVS) to ensure resurgence has not occurred. Some [...] Read more.

Eight Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) have been validated by the World Health Organization (WHO) as having eliminated lymphatic filariasis (LF) as a public health problem. WHO recommends that these countries implement post-validation surveillance (PVS) to ensure resurgence has not occurred. Some PICTs proactively conducted LF PVS even in the absence of specific recommendations or best-practice guidelines at the time of implementation. We aimed to explore the barriers and facilitators to implementing LF PVS in PICTs, with a view to informing context-specific strategies and regional guidelines. Key informant interviews were held between March and September 2024 with 15 participants involved in LF and/or neglected tropical disease surveillance. Transcripts were analysed thematically using a generalised deductive approach. A conceptual framework was developed to summarise themes with two main streams of barriers identified. Stream One Barriers included limited awareness of, and guidelines for, PVS requirements and competing national health priorities. Stream Two Barriers included cost, resource, and logistical barriers to conducting PVS. Participants called for clearer, contextually tailored guidelines, improved communication from WHO, and integration within existing systems. This study highlights the urgent need for operational guidance, policy advocacy, and capacity strengthening to ensure sustainable LF PVS in PICTs. Incorporating local context and leveraging existing health structures will be essential to prevent disease resurgence and maintain gains achieved through elimination programmes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Neglected and Emerging Tropical Diseases)

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