Environments

21 pages, 2891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method Validation: Extraction of Microplastics from Organic Fertilisers

by Delphine Ciréderf Boulant, Mathilde Simon, Anthony Magueresse, Nicolas Mortas, Nicolas Thévenin, Valérie Yeuch, Gaël Durand, Adrien Caurant, Sophie Goulitquer, Aurélie Even, Solenne Maisonnat, Zhazira Yesbergenova-Cuny, Isabelle Deportes, Stéphane Bruzaud and Mikaël Kedzierski

Environments 2025, 12(5), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050143 - 26 Apr 2025

Abstract

It has been demonstrated that organic fertilisers could be a source of microplastics (MPs) in agricultural soils. These organic fertilisers comprise a diverse array of matrices including organic waste and by-products. Currently, there is no established methodology for the extraction of MP from [...] Read more.

It has been demonstrated that organic fertilisers could be a source of microplastics (MPs) in agricultural soils. These organic fertilisers comprise a diverse array of matrices including organic waste and by-products. Currently, there is no established methodology for the extraction of MP from these matrices. The present article aims to validate a standardised protocol for the extraction of MPs from a diverse range of complex, organic-rich samples. The protocol has been developed to ensure a high recovery of MPs, to preserve their integrity, and to eliminate organic particles that interfere with FTIR analyses. Spiked MPs sized 315–5000 µm were subjected to a two-step process involving chemical digestion (H₂O₂, 30% (w/v), 53 °C) and density separation (NaI, >1.60 g·cm⁻³). This resulted in a mean extraction rate exceeding 95%, with undigested matter remaining below 5%. No evidence of fragmentation was observed. Furthermore, the chemical nature of spiked microplastics is still perfectly interpretable from the FTIR spectra despite the different chemical treatments undergone. These findings thus validate the method for the microplastic range 315–5000 µm. However, a new method for reanalysing the project’s data produced contrasting results, suggesting a significant drop in recovery rates for size ranges below 250 µm. This reanalysis approach constitutes the second innovation of this protocol, and enables a more critical analysis of the results obtained in publications on microplastics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Plastic Contamination)

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22 pages, 3707 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges in Transitioning to a Circular Economy: A Spatial Analysis of Socioeconomic Factors Affecting the Adoption of the Deposit-Return System

by Amelia Laura Ile, Anita Denisa Caizer and Alexandru Dragan

Environments 2025, 12(5), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050142 - 26 Apr 2025

Abstract

The Deposit-Return System for Recyclable Packaging (DRS) has recently been implemented in many countries to improve packaging waste management and support circular economy objectives. However, this mechanism has encountered many difficulties. The present study analyses the effectiveness of the DRS in the first [...] Read more.

The Deposit-Return System for Recyclable Packaging (DRS) has recently been implemented in many countries to improve packaging waste management and support circular economy objectives. However, this mechanism has encountered many difficulties. The present study analyses the effectiveness of the DRS in the first 10 months of its operation in Romania, focusing on the spatial inequalities in recycling behaviour, the socioeconomic factors that influence the level of user participation, and user perceptions of waste management effectiveness. Combining cartographic analysis, socioeconomic indicators correlations, and media sentiment analysis, we discover key barriers to DRS implementation in rural areas, infrastructure limits, and public trust challenges. The results show a correlation between recycling rates and factors such as educational attainment, economic well-being, and urbanisation. The study also points out waste management inefficiencies related to poor infrastructure, costs to retailers, and operational difficulties of the recycling system. To enhance DRS performance, we suggest expanding the collection infrastructure in uncovered areas, providing dedicated financial assistance to retailers, and increasing transparency communication in waste processing outcomes. These findings contribute to discussions on optimising deposit-return schemes, reducing waste generation, and improving recycling efficiency in emerging circular economies. Full article

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20 pages, 1636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Field Comparison of Active and Passive Soil Gas Sampling Techniques for VOC Monitoring at Contaminated Sites

by Raffaella Borrelli, Alessandra Cecconi, Alessandro Oldani, Federico Fuin, Renata Emiliani, Fabrizio Cacciari, Antonella Vecchio, Camilla Lanari, Federico Villani, Guido Bonfedi, Donatella Giacopetti, Renato Baciocchi and Iason Verginelli

Environments 2025, 12(5), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050141 - 26 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study presented a comprehensive comparison of soil gas sampling methodologies to monitor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at two industrial sites in northern Italy. Utilizing active sampling techniques, such as stainless-steel canisters, vacuum bottles, and sorbent tubes, alongside passive methods like low-density polyethylene [...] Read more.

This study presented a comprehensive comparison of soil gas sampling methodologies to monitor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at two industrial sites in northern Italy. Utilizing active sampling techniques, such as stainless-steel canisters, vacuum bottles, and sorbent tubes, alongside passive methods like low-density polyethylene (PE) membranes, sorbent pens, and Waterloo Membrane Samplers (WMS), the research examines their effectiveness under varied environmental conditions. Five field campaigns were conducted in two areas of the industrial sites characterized by BTEX and chlorinated solvent contamination. The results highlighted that active sampling, while expensive, provides real-time, high-resolution VOC concentration data, often outperforming passive methods for heavier compounds (e.g., hexachlorobutadiene). However, using the active systems in certain campaigns, challenges such as high soil humidity or atmospheric air infiltration were observed, resulting in an underestimation of the soil gas concentrations. Passive sampling systems demonstrated cost-effective, efficient alternatives, offering consistent spatial and temporal coverage. These methods showed alignment with active techniques for lighter compounds (e.g., TCE and BTEX) but faced limitations in sorbent saturation and equilibrium time for heavier VOCs (e.g., hexachlorobutadiene), requiring adjustments in exposure duration to enhance accuracy. PE samplers provided results comparable to active methods, especially for BTEX and TCE, while WMS and sorbent pens exhibited lower sensitivity for certain analytes. This underscores the importance of optimizing sampler configurations and deployment strategies. The findings emphasize the value of integrating active and passive approaches to achieve robust VOC assessments in heterogeneous subsurface environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Pollution and Remediation: Multidisciplinary Approaches to a Global Challenge)

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15 pages, 553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of California’s 2020 Chlorpyrifos Ban on Urinary Biomarkers of Pesticide Exposure in Agricultural Communities

by Bonnie N. Young, Sherry WeMott, Grace Kuiper, Olivia Alvarez, Gregory Dooley, Grant Erlandson, Luis Hernandez Ramirez, Nayamin Martinez, Jesus Mendoza, Casey Quinn, Lorena Sanpedro and Sheryl Magzamen

Environments 2025, 12(5), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050140 - 26 Apr 2025

Abstract

In 2020, California banned the sale and agricultural use of chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate pesticide (OP) associated with neurotoxicity and other adverse health outcomes. We primarily assessed changes in chlorpyrifos associated with this policy and secondarily explored how other OP exposures changed. The participants [...] Read more.

In 2020, California banned the sale and agricultural use of chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate pesticide (OP) associated with neurotoxicity and other adverse health outcomes. We primarily assessed changes in chlorpyrifos associated with this policy and secondarily explored how other OP exposures changed. The participants were from California’s Central Valley, 18 years or older, and English- or Spanish-speaking. The surveys and urine samples were collected pre-ban (December 2020) and post-ban (February–April 2022). The urine samples were analyzed for a chlorpyrifos-specific metabolite (TCPy), six dialkyl phosphates (DEP, DMTP, DETP, DMDTP, DMP, DEDTP), and total DE and DM. The pre- and post-ban metabolite concentrations were compared via Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and natural log-transformed paired differences in linear mixed effects regression, adjusted for covariates. Forty-nine participants had repeated biomarker data. The mean age of the study population was 46.8 years (SD: 16), 61% female, 67% Spanish-speaking, 100% Hispanic/Latino(a), and 47% had less than a high school education. Six urinary metabolites (TCPy, DEP, DMP, DMTP, total DE and total DM) had sufficient variation for further analysis, while DMDTP, DEDTP, and DETP were undetected. The paired differences in adjusted models showed statistically significant increases in TCPy and DMP associated with the policy change (e.g., TCPy estimated ratio of geometric means: 4.53 (95% CI 2.66, 7.69)) Reductions in metabolites of chlorpyrifos exposure were not observed following California’s chlorpyrifos ban, suggesting ongoing exposure to chlorpyrifos from other sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Challenges and Sustainable Contributions to the One Health Approach)

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17 pages, 2359 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Inhibitory Effects on Aerobic Biomass: Interaction Between Per-/Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) and Traditional Toxic Compounds

by Maria Cristina Collivignarelli, Stefano Bellazzi, Laura Maria Rita Calabria, Marco Baldi and Alessandro Abbà

Environments 2025, 12(5), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050139 - 25 Apr 2025

Abstract

This work aims to investigate the inhibitory effects of PFAS on activated sludge biomass and compare them to the impact of conventional toxic substances that may be found in wastewater, such as phenol, trichlorophenol, and copper sulphate. Respirometric assays, i.e., batch and continuous [...] Read more.

This work aims to investigate the inhibitory effects of PFAS on activated sludge biomass and compare them to the impact of conventional toxic substances that may be found in wastewater, such as phenol, trichlorophenol, and copper sulphate. Respirometric assays, i.e., batch and continuous oxygen uptake (OUR) tests, were used to evaluate the response of aerobic biomass to various aqueous wastes containing PFAS and traditional inhibitory compounds. The study is divided into many phases, assessing the inhibitory effects of tested pollutants over different time scales: short-term exposure (10 min contact time in batch tests) and medium-term exposure (several hours in continuous tests). The results highlight that while PFAS did not cause acute or medium-term chronic toxicity on biomass (OUR values between 6 and 8 mgDO (gSSV·h)⁻¹), copper sulphate (at a concentration of 166.7 mg L⁻¹) involved irreversible inhibition beyond critical exposure time. Furthermore, the biodegradability of the studied substrates was impacted by the interaction between PFAS and conventional toxic substances, with certain mixtures showing the capacity to lessen inhibitory effects (OUR values between 5 and 20 mgDO (gSSV·h)⁻¹). This study provides new knowledge on the potential inhibitory mechanisms of PFAS and underlines the importance of considering the combined effects of these pollutants with other contaminants. The findings support the development of more effective treatment approaches for PFAS-contaminated wastewater and help in improving the operational strategies of wastewater treatment plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Fate, and Environmental Risk Assessment of Organic Pollutants in Water)

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14 pages, 464 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development and Reliability Testing of a Tool to Assess Women’s Perceptions and Avoidance of Endocrine Disruptors in Personal and Household Products

by Adrianna Trifunovski, Nooshin Khobzi Rotondi, Jennifer Abbass-Dick, Rola Al Ghali and Caroline Barakat

Environments 2025, 12(5), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050138 - 25 Apr 2025

Abstract

Personal care and household products (PCHPs) often contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that pose health risks, especially for women. Women, frequent users of PCHPs, are exposed to approximately 168 chemicals daily. However, there are gaps in understanding women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, and beliefs regarding [...] Read more.

Personal care and household products (PCHPs) often contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that pose health risks, especially for women. Women, frequent users of PCHPs, are exposed to approximately 168 chemicals daily. However, there are gaps in understanding women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, and beliefs regarding these chemicals, as well as how these constructs influence their avoidance behavior. Existing questionnaires on EDCs in PCHPs lack reliability and comprehensiveness. Guided by the Health Belief Model, this study developed a self-administered questionnaire targeting four key constructs: knowledge, health risk perceptions, beliefs, and avoidance behaviors related to six EDCs commonly found in PCHPs (lead, parabens, Bisphenol A, phthalates, triclosan, and perchloroethylene). The questionnaire was distributed to 200 women at in-person events and online. The internal consistency of the constructs was tested using Cronbach’s alpha. The questionnaire included six items assessing knowledge, seven items on risk perceptions, five items on beliefs, and six items on avoidance behavior for each endocrine-disrupting chemical. Cronbach’s alpha values indicated strong reliability across all constructs. This newly developed questionnaire offers a reliable tool for assessing women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors toward EDCs in PCHPs. These findings could inform public health research and intervention strategies aimed at reducing women’s exposure to EDCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollution Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 1961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Barriers to Effective Management of Mediterranean Coastal Lagoons Following Key European Union Directives: Perceptions of Managers of Natura 2000 Lagoon Sites in South France

by Nathalie Boutin, Louise Chourot, Jean-Claude Raynal and Rutger De Wit

Environments 2025, 12(5), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050137 - 25 Apr 2025

Abstract

This paper focuses on the challenges for the co-implementation of two European Union Directives, i.e., the Habitats Directive and the Water Framework Directive, for the management of Mediterranean coastal lagoons as protected areas. Many of these ecosystems are included in the Natura 2000 [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on the challenges for the co-implementation of two European Union Directives, i.e., the Habitats Directive and the Water Framework Directive, for the management of Mediterranean coastal lagoons as protected areas. Many of these ecosystems are included in the Natura 2000 network, the largest network of protected areas in the world. Based on semi-structured interviews with 45 stakeholders from 41 institutions, the study identified five main types of perceived barriers: economic, political and socio-cultural, historical, administrative, and ecological. The study confirmed that the co-implementation of the Habitats Directive (HD) and the Water Framework Directive (WFD) in Mediterranean coastal lagoons generated multiple and interrelated barriers. Beyond their regulatory complexity, these EU directives confronted managers with deep operational challenges. First, mismatches between administrative and ecological boundaries weakened their ability to control key ecological processes such as nutrient flows. Second, the proliferation of indicators, often perceived as disconnected from local realities, reinforced the critique of a management by numbers approach. Finally, the widespread use of regulatory exemptions, while intended to adapt EU rules to local contexts, frequently fueled persistent mistrust among stakeholders, especially in historically degraded environments. These challenges were further exacerbated by a siloed organization of administrations, limiting coordination and adaptive management. Overall, these findings call for more integrated governance frameworks, a more critical and context-sensitive use of indicators, and greater transparency in derogation procedures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiple Approaches for Environmental Assessment of Transitional and Coastal Waters II)

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24 pages, 2228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Bioremediation and Soil Fertility Study: Effects of Vermiremediation on Soil Contaminated by Chlorpyrifos

by Francesca Tagliabue, Enrica Marini, Arianna De Bernardi, Costantino Vischetti, Gianluca Brunetti and Cristiano Casucci

Environments 2025, 12(5), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050136 - 24 Apr 2025

Abstract

Although the broad-spectrum pesticide chlorpyrifos (CP) was banned in many developed countries, it is still widely used in developing countries. Its residues persist in the environment for unpredictable times. CP is toxic to various non-target organisms and humans and inhibits soil enzyme activity [...] Read more.

Although the broad-spectrum pesticide chlorpyrifos (CP) was banned in many developed countries, it is still widely used in developing countries. Its residues persist in the environment for unpredictable times. CP is toxic to various non-target organisms and humans and inhibits soil enzyme activity and bacterial and fungal abundance. This paper aimed to evaluate the effect of vermiremediation on soil chlorpyrifos content and soil fertility. The application of Eisenia fetida or vermicompost was studied in terms of soil chlorpyrifos concentration, microbial biomass content, and enzymatic activities in a 120-day trial. Pesticide application rates were 0, 25, and 50 ppm. The CP did not affect the earthworm survival rate at the tested doses. The earthworms markedly increased microbial biomass carbon and the activity of β-glucosamminidase, while the vermicompost had a noticeably positive effect mainly on alkaline phosphatase activity. Finally, although the vermiremediation techniques studied did not perform a bioremediation activity, they proved effective in improving the biological fertility of the soil in the presence of high concentrations of chlorpyrifos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Soil Contamination and Remediation)

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16 pages, 638 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Global Recovery Policy of Used Lubricating Oils and Their Effects on the Environment and Circular Economy

by Catherine Cabrera-Escobar, Juan Moreno-Gutiérrez, Rubén Rodríguez-Moreno, Emilio Pájaro-Velázquez, Fátima Calderay-Cayetano and Vanesa Durán-Grados

Environments 2025, 12(5), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050135 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

This manuscript underscores the significance of converting and reusing lubricating oils for dual purposes as both lubricants and fuels. This approach not only benefits the environment, but also contributes to the circular economy. To this end, this article conducts a review and delves [...] Read more.

This manuscript underscores the significance of converting and reusing lubricating oils for dual purposes as both lubricants and fuels. This approach not only benefits the environment, but also contributes to the circular economy. To this end, this article conducts a review and delves into the applications and re-refining techniques employed to recover lubricating oil from waste lubricating oil (WLO). A global overview of waste oil recycling and political feasibility in the marketplace is presented, highlighting country-specific preferences for reusing such oils. Moreover, this manuscript analyzes several studies that utilize recycled oil as fuel in thermal equipment, including diesel engines. The findings indicate that CO emissions increased incrementally under both low- (from 3.22% to 21.23%) and high-load conditions (from 6.6% to 18.2%) compared to diesel fuel. Another study reveals that 10% and 20% blends of transformer oil and diesel exhibit lower fuel consumption than diesel fuel at high loads. In all the cases examined, WLO demonstrated slightly higher emission levels than marine diesel oil (MDO), yet lower than those observed with heavy fuel oil (HFO). Full article

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14 pages, 1448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recirculation of Saline Concentrate in Spirulina Cultivation: A Promising Strategy for High Production of Biomass and Biomolecules in Semiarid Regions

by Saulo Nascimento Mata, Lucas Guimarães Cardoso, Priscilla Quenia Muniz Bezerra, Bianca Bomfim Andrade, Maria Beatriz Prior Pinto Oliveira, Susana Machado, Ravena Maria de Almeida Medeiros, Natália Hlavnicka Miranda, Jamila Sueira de Jesus Silva, Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa, Denilson de Jesus Assis, Jania Betânia Alves da Silva and Carolina Oliveira de Souza

Environments 2025, 12(5), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050134 - 22 Apr 2025

Abstract

Desalination concentrate (DC) is a residue from desalination plants in semiarid regions, and it is promising for microalgae cultures. Its effects have been evaluated in a previsions study involving Spirulina sp. LEB 18 cultures grown in a medium containing 100% DC, supplemented with [...] Read more.

Desalination concentrate (DC) is a residue from desalination plants in semiarid regions, and it is promising for microalgae cultures. Its effects have been evaluated in a previsions study involving Spirulina sp. LEB 18 cultures grown in a medium containing 100% DC, supplemented with 25% Zarrouk nutrients, and without reuse. In the present study, Spirulina sp. LEB 18 was cultivated in the recycled saline concentrate medium from the previous experiment over three consecutive cycles using raceways. The recycled DC achieved a maximum biomass production of 3.77 g·L⁻¹, surpassing the control production (3.45 g·L⁻¹), and demonstrated high resistance to elevated environmental temperatures, reaching 42.80 °C. Protein levels (≤37%) containing all essential amino acids (~40% of total proteins) and fatty acids with relevant impacts on health were reached. Using up to three DC cycles for Spirulina sp. cultivation can contribute to the valorization of this residue and add viability to semiarid regions for biomass production with adequate nutritional composition for supplementation of humans and animals. Full article

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15 pages, 1608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dissipation Kinetics and Dietary Risk Assessment of Boscalid Residues in Two Table-Grape Varieties Under Field Conditions

by Paraskevas Parlakidis, George S. Adamidis, Theodoros Doulaveris, Dimitrios Makaridis, Christos Alexoudis, Zisis Vryzas and Georgios D. Gikas

Environments 2025, 12(5), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050133 - 22 Apr 2025

Abstract

Grape cultivation is crucial due to its significant dietary benefits and the production of various byproducts. Fungicides, like boscalid, are frequently applied to protect grape crops from several disease, ensuring both yield and quality. However, the excessive or inappropriate application of boscalid may [...] Read more.

Grape cultivation is crucial due to its significant dietary benefits and the production of various byproducts. Fungicides, like boscalid, are frequently applied to protect grape crops from several disease, ensuring both yield and quality. However, the excessive or inappropriate application of boscalid may pose health risks to humans. Therefore, the objectives of this field study were (a) to assess the pre-harvest interval (PHI) and dissipation of boscalid in two table-grape varieties (Soultanina and Crimson) under field conditions and (b) evaluate the potential health risks associated with grape consumption for both adults and children. The residue of boscalid in the grapes was determined using a modified QuEChERS method coupled with a high-performance liquid chromatography diode array detector (HPLC–DAD). The dissipation of boscalid followed first- and second-order kinetics, with half-lives ranging from 3.32 to 6.42 days and PHIs from 8.11 to 10.90 days. The dietary risk assessment indicated that the early to mid-post application period could pose risks for both age groups, with children facing three times the risk of adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollutant Exposure and Human Health)

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25 pages, 1010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solutions for Modelling the Marine Oil Spill Drift

by Catalin Popa, Dinu Atodiresei, Alecu Toma, Vasile Dobref and Jenel Vatamanu

Environments 2025, 12(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040132 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Oil spills represent a critical environmental hazard with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences, necessitating the development of sophisticated modelling approaches to predict, monitor, and mitigate their impacts. This study presents a computationally efficient and physically grounded modelling framework for simulating oil spill drift [...] Read more.

Oil spills represent a critical environmental hazard with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences, necessitating the development of sophisticated modelling approaches to predict, monitor, and mitigate their impacts. This study presents a computationally efficient and physically grounded modelling framework for simulating oil spill drift in marine environments, developed using Python coding. The proposed model integrates core physical processes—advection, diffusion, and degradation—within a simplified partial differential equation system, employing an integrator for numerical simulation. Building on recent advances in marine pollution modelling, the study incorporates real-time oceanographic data, satellite-based remote sensing, and subsurface dispersion dynamics into an enriched version of the simulation. The research is structured in two phases: (1) the development of a minimalist Python model to validate fundamental oil transport behaviours, and (2) the implementation of a comprehensive, multi-layered simulation that includes NOAA ocean currents, 3D vertical mixing, and support for inland and chemical spill modelling. The results confirm the model’s ability to reproduce realistic oil spill trajectories, diffusion patterns, and biodegradation effects under variable environmental conditions. The proposed framework demonstrates strong potential for real-time decision support in oil spill response, coastal protection, and environmental policy-making. This paperwork contributes to the field by bridging theoretical modelling with practical response needs, offering a scalable and adaptable tool for marine pollution forecasting. Future extensions may incorporate deep learning algorithms and high-resolution sensor data to further enhance predictive accuracy and operational readiness. Full article

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27 pages, 881 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Sustainable Energy: Predictive Models for Space Heating Consumption at the European Central Bank

by Fernando Almeida, Mauro Castelli and Nadine Côrte-Real

Environments 2025, 12(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040131 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Space heating consumption prediction is critical for energy management and efficiency, directly impacting sustainability and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Accurate models enable better demand forecasting, promote the use of green energy, and support decarbonization goals. However, existing models often lack precision [...] Read more.

Space heating consumption prediction is critical for energy management and efficiency, directly impacting sustainability and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Accurate models enable better demand forecasting, promote the use of green energy, and support decarbonization goals. However, existing models often lack precision due to limited feature sets, suboptimal algorithm choices, and limited access to weather data, which reduces generalizability. This study addresses these gaps by evaluating various Machine Learning and Deep Learning models, including K-Nearest Neighbors, Support Vector Regression, Decision Trees, Linear Regression, XGBoost, Random Forest, Gradient Boosting, AdaBoost, Long Short-Term Memory, and Gated Recurrent Units. We utilized space heating consumption data from the European Central Bank Headquarters office as a case study. We employed a methodology that involved splitting the features into three categories based on the correlation and evaluating model performance using Mean Squared Error, Mean Absolute Error, Root Mean Squared Error, and R-squared metrics. Results indicate that XGBoost consistently outperformed other models, particularly when utilizing all available features, achieving an R² value of 0.966 using the weather data from the building weather station. This model’s superior performance underscores the importance of comprehensive feature sets for accurate predictions. The significance of this study lies in its contribution to sustainable energy management practices. By improving the accuracy of space heating consumption forecasts, our approach supports the efficient use of green energy resources, aiding in the global efforts towards decarbonization and reducing carbon footprints in urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Life Cycle Assessment: Methods and Tools to Achieve Sustainable Decarbonization and Circular Economy in the Building Sector)

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18 pages, 1579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Environmental Cost–Benefit Analysis of Using Reclaimed Water for Irrigation in Southern Spain

by Antonia María Lorenzo López and Alfonso Expósito

Environments 2025, 12(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040130 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Water scarcity and pollution are critical challenges affecting agriculture and aquatic ecosystems. This study evaluates the environmental benefits of using reclaimed water (RW) for irrigation in southern Spain by applying a comprehensive cost–benefit analysis (CBA) to a water reuse project. This method allows [...] Read more.

Water scarcity and pollution are critical challenges affecting agriculture and aquatic ecosystems. This study evaluates the environmental benefits of using reclaimed water (RW) for irrigation in southern Spain by applying a comprehensive cost–benefit analysis (CBA) to a water reuse project. This method allows us to assess financial feasibility and environmental externalities of RW use for irrigation, with particular focus on the reduction in eutrophication and greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, the proposed CBA highlights the potential of RW to provide essential nutrients for crops, reduce reliance on synthetic fertilizers, and mitigate the ecological impact of fertilizer manufacturing and transportation. Results indicate that, while the direct financial returns of RW are limited, the integration of environmental benefits significantly improves the overall economic viability of water reuse projects. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses suggest that policy measures, such as adjusted water pricing and financial incentives, could enhance the adoption of RW in agriculture. This study supports the role of RW as a sustainable alternative for irrigation, contributing to water conservation, pollution reduction, and climate resilience. Future research should focus on long-term agronomic impacts, optimized pricing models, and policy frameworks that promote water reuse as a key strategy in sustainable water management. Full article

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29 pages, 2782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Agriculture Conserve Biodiversity? Structural Biodiversity Analysis in a Case Study of Wild Bird Communities in Southern Europe

by Maurizio Gioiosa, Alessia Spada, Anna Rita Bernadette Cammerino, Michela Ingaramo and Massimo Monteleone

Environments 2025, 12(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040129 - 20 Apr 2025

Abstract

Agriculture plays a dual role in shaping biodiversity, providing secondary habitats while posing significant threats to ecological systems through habitat fragmentation and land-use intensification. This study aims to assess the relationship between bird species composition and land-use types in Apulia, Italy. Specifically, we [...] Read more.

Agriculture plays a dual role in shaping biodiversity, providing secondary habitats while posing significant threats to ecological systems through habitat fragmentation and land-use intensification. This study aims to assess the relationship between bird species composition and land-use types in Apulia, Italy. Specifically, we investigate how different agricultural and semi-natural landscapes influence avian biodiversity and which agricultural models can have a positive impact on biodiversity. Biodiversity indices were calculated for each bird community observed. The abundance curves showed a geometric series pattern for the AGR communities, indicative of ecosystems at an early stage of ecological succession, and a lognormal distribution for the MIX and NAT communities, typical of mature communities with a more even distribution of species. Analysis of variance showed significant differences in richness and diversity between AGR and NAT sites, but not between NAT and MIX, which had the highest values. Logistic regression estimated the probability of sites belonging to the three ecosystem categories as a function of biodiversity, confirming a strong similarity between NAT and MIX. Finally, linear discriminant analysis confirmed a clear separation from AGR areas, as evidenced by the canonical components. The results highlight the importance of integrating high-diversity landscape elements and appropriate agricultural practices to mitigate biodiversity loss. Even a small increase in the naturalness of agricultural land would be sufficient to convert it from the AGR to the MIX ecosystem category, with significant biodiversity benefits. Full article

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20 pages, 1683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phenol, Cyanide, and Thiocyanate in Aquatic Media: The Ecotoxicity of Individual Substances and Their Mixtures

by Ana Tutić, Martina Miloloža, Matija Cvetnić, Šime Ukić and Dajana Kučić Grgić

Environments 2025, 12(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040128 - 20 Apr 2025

Abstract

Although the coking industry is a major polluter, it is still an important and irreplaceable industry in many countries. Wastewater from the coking industry typically contains large amounts of various hazardous substances, including phenols, cyanides, and thiocyanates; we conducted a comprehensive study on [...] Read more.

Although the coking industry is a major polluter, it is still an important and irreplaceable industry in many countries. Wastewater from the coking industry typically contains large amounts of various hazardous substances, including phenols, cyanides, and thiocyanates; we conducted a comprehensive study on their ecotoxicity. This included five different toxicity tests with common species from different trophic levels: the bacteria Aliivibrio fischeri and Pseudomonas putida, the microalgae Chlorella sp., the duckweed Lemna minor, and the onion plant Allium cepa. These tests have rarely or never been used for these three toxicants. The results show that cyanide generally has the highest toxicity, while phenol has a relatively equal or higher toxicity than thiocyanate, depending on the test. Since no data on the joint toxic action of these three toxicants can be found in the literature, and although their joint occurrence in the aquatic environment is very likely, we performed joint toxic action analysis. The analysis was performed for binary and ternary mixtures of the toxicants using the Aliivibrio fischeri test. The concentration addition model was used as a reference model for the toxic behavior of these mixtures. The results obtained showed a synergistic deviation from the concentration addition model for combinations of phenol with cyanide and with thiocyanate, while the combination of cyanide and thiocyanate led to additive toxic behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollution Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 3613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ecofriendly Degradation of PET via Neutral Hydrolysis: Degradation Mechanism and Green Chemistry Metrics

by Adhithiya Venkatachalapati Thulasiraman, Arun Krishna Vuppaladadiyam, Ibrahim Gbolahan Hakeem, Kamrun Nahar, Manoj Kumar Jena and Kalpit Shah

Environments 2025, 12(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040127 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

Waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles represent 12% of global plastic waste; however, only 9% are recycled. Hydrothermal processing presents the opportunity to upcycle waste PET into its monomers, particularly, terephthalic acid (TPA). In this study, post-consumer PET sparkling water bottles were neutrally hydrolysed [...] Read more.

Waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles represent 12% of global plastic waste; however, only 9% are recycled. Hydrothermal processing presents the opportunity to upcycle waste PET into its monomers, particularly, terephthalic acid (TPA). In this study, post-consumer PET sparkling water bottles were neutrally hydrolysed via a hydrothermal process operating within a temperature range of 220–270 °C, a residence time of 30–90 min, and autogenous pressure of 25–90 bar. Under these conditions, the TPA yield varied between 7.34 and 81.05%, and the maximum TPA yield was obtained at 250 °C, 90 min, and 40 bar. The process temperature had a more profound impact on the PET conversion and TPA yield than the residence time. The values of the environmental factor (EF) were found to be 0.017–0.106, which were comparable to those of bulk chemicals (EF < 1). With the chosen operating conditions, the environmental energy impact (EEI) of TPA production was estimated to be 5.29 × 10⁴ °C min. The findings demonstrate that neutral hydrolysis is a feasible approach for converting PET polymers into monomers under mild environmental conditions. In addition, a GCMS analysis of the aqueous-phase product revealed a notable increase in the secondary degradation products of TPA, such as benzoic acid, rising from 66.4% to 75.7% as the process temperature increased from 220 °C to 270 °C. The degradation mechanisms of PET were found to be decarboxylation, dehydration, and oxidation. The dominant mechanism was found to be a decarboxylation reaction. Full article

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22 pages, 4418 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Screening Urban Soil Contamination in Rome: Insights from XRF and Multivariate Analysis

by Monica Shree Chandramohan, Isabel Martinho da Silva, Rita P. Ribeiro, Alípio Jorge and Joaquim Esteves da Silva

Environments 2025, 12(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040126 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study investigates spatial distribution and chemical elemental composition screening in soils in Rome (Italy) using X-ray fluorescence analysis. Fifty-nine soil samples were collected from various locations within the urban areas of the Rome municipality and were analyzed for 19 elements. Multivariate statistical [...] Read more.

This study investigates spatial distribution and chemical elemental composition screening in soils in Rome (Italy) using X-ray fluorescence analysis. Fifty-nine soil samples were collected from various locations within the urban areas of the Rome municipality and were analyzed for 19 elements. Multivariate statistical techniques, including nonlinear mapping, principal component analysis, and hierarchical cluster analysis, were employed to identify clusters of similar soil samples and their spatial distribution and to try to obtain environmental quality information. The soil sample clusters result from natural geological processes and anthropogenic activities on soil contamination patterns. Spatial clustering using the k-means algorithm further identified six distinct clusters, each with specific geographical distributions and elemental characteristics. Hence, the findings underscore the importance of targeted soil assessments to ensure the sustainable use of land resources in urban areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environments: 10 Years of Science Together)

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17 pages, 1392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association of Dietary Patterns with Blood Heavy Metal Concentrations: Results from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2012–2016

by Dahyun Park, Nalae Moon, Hee Ju Jun, Su Ji Heo, Seungyoung Park, Min-Jeong Shin and Ju Hee Kim

Environments 2025, 12(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040125 - 17 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study investigated possible associations between dietary patterns and blood heavy metal levels in Korean adults, using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2012–2016). To explore these associations, demographic, physical activity, anthropometric, biochemical, and dietary data, including a food [...] Read more.

This study investigated possible associations between dietary patterns and blood heavy metal levels in Korean adults, using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2012–2016). To explore these associations, demographic, physical activity, anthropometric, biochemical, and dietary data, including a food frequency questionnaire, were analyzed. Foods were categorized into 19 groups, and principal component factor analysis identified three dietary patterns: Meat and processed food-enriched diet (MPD), vegetables and milk-enriched diet (VMD), and fermented and fish-enriched diet (FFD). Multivariate logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between dietary patterns and high levels of heavy metals in the blood. The results showed that a high MPD score had a positive association with high levels of blood Pb (OR = 1.470, 95% CI = 1.173–1.842) and Hg (OR = 1.559, 95% CI = 1.259–1.932); a high FFD score also showed a positive association with high levels of blood Pb (OR = 1.492, 95% CI = 1.227–1.814) and Cd (OR = 1.276, 95% CI = 1.045–1.559). In contrast, VMD score was negatively associated with high levels of blood Pb (OR = 0.760, 95% CI = 0.628–0.920) and Cd (OR = 0.948, 95% CI = 0.781–1.151). Moreover, the effect of each dietary pattern on blood heavy metal levels showed differences by sex. Some dietary patterns, such as a high intake of meat, processed foods, fermented foods, and fish, can increase blood heavy metal levels, whereas other dietary patterns, such as vegetables and milk, have a protective effect against heavy metal concentrations. Full article

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