Multimodal Technology-Integrated Approaches for Teaching Early Childhood and Early Primary Science: A Scoping Review

Abstract

In early childhood and early primary settings, science education is often overshadowed by other subjects such as literacy and numeracy due to the perception that learning science is less essential than acquiring skills in other core subjects. The teaching of biological science, in particular, have limited engagement and interactivity, leading to lower student interest and participation. This scoping review aims to explore the current practices and challenges in teaching biological science within early childhood and early primary settings with a special focus on multimodality to increase student engagement and interactivity via the integration of digital tools. Existing research emphasises a current gap in integrating multimodal teaching and learning approaches—ranging from manual and digital to robotic technologies—in biological science. Based on the findings, recommendations are made for the successful integration of multimodal approaches to make biological science more engaging, dynamic, and memorable for young learners.

1. Introduction

In this scoping review, “biological science education” refers to early learning experiences supporting young learners’ understanding of living systems, basic needs of living things, the nature and development of science, growth, and life cycles, as well as the relationships between living beings and their environment (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2025). In addition, in this review, multimodality is understood as the construction of meaning through the integration of multiple communicative modes, such as images, gestures, sound, and movement, rather than relying solely on linguistic forms.

This scoping review study reports on the process and results of the application of multimodal tools in teaching science (particularly, biological science) to early learners, including early childhood and early primary. The review aims to identify current practices and challenges in integrating multimodal tools for teaching various science subjects to young learners and to further inform a project to develop a multimodal pedagogical approach for teaching science to young children. The review was completed as part of a Doctoral research project to conceptualise how and why multimodal and interactive teaching and learning can be introduced as a new approach within early childhood and early primary biological science education.

1.1. Biological Science and Multimodality in Early Childhood and Early Primary Education

Many questions around science and human involvement in its various processes have been explored by the research field of science education in the past—questions such as ‘What is science?’ and ‘How is scientific knowledge developed?’. While previous research has emphasised the importance of teaching these concepts, it has mainly focused on older children, overlooking younger children in early childhood (EC) and early primary (EP) education. Previous studies show that science should be integrated into teaching from early years to lay a robust framework for understanding foundational scientific concepts (Guarrella et al., 2022). The science-shaped gap in the Australian early years and early primary curriculum for teaching biological science concepts to young learners highlights the need for targeted teaching strategies suitable for children. According to Oaten (2024), multimodal teaching methods are required to maintain focus and engagement because teaching science fundamentals to young children can be challenging due to their short attention span.

Rapid technological advancements in recent years have transformed teaching and learning. Multimodal tools, including various forms of communication, such as text, images, audio, and interactive elements, have shown an increased potential for enhancing user engagement and understanding of complex concepts in education (Kress, 2009). Leveraging multimodal teaching and learning tools is an excellent addition to the current teaching strategies to overcome the challenges of teaching scientific concepts to young learners (e.g., EC and EP students) (Guarrella et al., 2022). Older studies, such as that carried out by Oxley (2014), have also shown that creating a dynamic learning environment for students involves integrating game-based and multimodal techniques in the learning process. Hence, the current scoping review seeks to explore the effectiveness of multimodal and interactive visual communication tools with a specific focus on gamification and play-based learning to enhance biological science education in EC and EP education. The research problem at hand is the underrepresentation and undervaluation of biological science education in EC and EP education. Despite the importance of science education in fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills, it is now proven that it is significantly overshadowed by other subjects like literacy and numeracy (Guarrella et al., 2022). This issue is compounded by policy and curriculum gaps that fail to prioritise science education in the early years (Australian Children’s Education & Care Quality Authority [ACECQA], 2023). It has been identified that there are significant barriers to implementing multimodal and interactive learning tools in the classroom. These include a lack of resources, insufficient training for educators, and resistance to adopting new technologies and teaching methods (Aydin et al., 2017). To overcome these barriers, the EC and EP landscape needs a comprehensive approach that includes professional development for educators and contextually relevant teaching resources.

Additionally, considering recent technological advances (Gao et al., 2020; OECD, 2025a), it is critical to explore various multimodal methods (e.g., gamification; simulations) to create a more dynamic learning environment for young learners, enabling educators to overcome the complexities they face in teaching scientific concepts in EC and EP settings.

Given ongoing technological advancements (Gao et al., 2020; OECD, 2025b), it is therefore timely to examine multimodal approaches, such as gamification and simulation-based learning, as an intentional pedagogy for educators to create more engaging and dynamic science learning environments. This review responds to the need by synthesising current evidence on multimodal and interactive pedagogies, with the aim of informing the development of theoretically grounded and practical multimodal approaches in biological science teaching.

1.2. Trends in Policy and Curriculum for Technology Integration

UNESCO’s Strategy on Technological Innovation in Education (2021–2025) emphasises the importance of integrating technological innovations to support equitable, inclusive, and high-quality lifelong learning for all. The strategy focuses on three core functions:

• Observatory of technological transformations in education.
• Technical assistance and capacity development.
• Formulation and implementation of standard-setting instruments.

The main aims of these functions are to build competencies for technology-enhanced pedagogy, encourage open and inclusive technology solutions, and integrate technological innovations into education systems. A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), entitled ‘Trends Shaping Education 2025’, explores how advances in artificial intelligence, virtual reality, robotics and other technologies could transform teaching and learning. The report emphasises the need for education systems to anticipate disruptions and think strategically about the future. By imagining potential scenarios and exploring diverse possibilities, education policymakers and stakeholders can make informed decisions that are resilient and adaptive. This proactive approach supports the integration of multimodal technologies to enhance teaching practices and address the challenges identified by educators—but what is the exact definition of multimodality?

Version 9.0 of the Australian Curriculum (produced by the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2025) defines multimodality (multimodal text, in this case) as a combination of two or more communication modes, such as language, gesture, image, sound, and space. ACARA also emphasises the importance of teaching students to comprehend and create multimodal texts across various curriculum areas, including science. Hence, learning the fundamentals of multimodality is equally important for both students and educators. There is much focus on introducing digital technologies and multimodal resources to students at a very young age under supervision and for educational purposes.

For example, the Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) V 2.0, 2022, for Australia emphasises the incorporation of digital technologies and multimedia resources in EC education and its benefits in children’s overall learning. The framework outlines how educators can use these tools to support children’s learning and development across various modalities, including linguistic, visual, spatial, tactile, gestural, audio, and oral (Australian Children’s Education & Care Quality Authority [ACECQA], 2023). It is noticeable that through incorporating multimodal technologies, educators can create more engaging and effective learning environments that support children’s development and learning. According to EYLF V2.0, ‘educators should use digital technologies to support children’s exploration and understanding of scientific concepts’ (p. 45). This statement clearly shows the framework’s commitment to incorporating multimodal tools to enhance learning; however, gaps in educators’ knowledge and skills make it difficult to incorporate those tools into their teaching methods. These gaps need to be addressed.

The EYLF V2.0 indicates that ‘many educators require additional training and support to effectively integrate digital technologies into their teaching practices’ (p. 52). To overcome the gap in educators’ knowledge, EYLF V2.0 emphasises the need for ongoing training and professional development. It suggests that ‘professional learning programmes should focus on building educators’ competencies in using digital technologies and multimedia resources’ (p. 60). These development programmes enhance educators’ knowledge and skills and boosts their confidence to include multimodal tools in their teaching practices. In summary, EYLF V2.0 highlights that targeted training and professional development for educators and exploring new multimodal teaching and learning technologies are equally important. As such, the current scoping review aims to contribute to the policy and curriculum gap by understanding the current practices and challenges in teaching biological science within EC and EP settings.

Despite strong policy support for multimodal and digital approaches in early education, biological science remains unrepresented and inconsistently enacted in early childhood and early primary settings. There is limited synthesis of how multimodal tools are currently used and what challenges educators face in implementing them effectively for young learners. This scoping review addresses this gap by examining existing practices and challenges that conceptualise multimodal and interactive pedagogies for early science education, with a particular focus on biological science concepts.

1.3. Multimodality and Its Application to This Study

In this scoping review, multimodality is conceptualised as meaning-making that is produced through a combination of multimodal models of communication like image, gesture, sound, and movement, rather than through language alone. This aligns well with a social semiotic view of multimodality focusing on “mixed” modal resources to increase comprehension and engagement (Kress, 2009).

Multimodality in general means applying different forms of communication, such as language, images, and music, to convey meaning; it includes the interactions and contributions of different modes within various contexts like multimedia, education, and design (Brandt, 2004). Using multiple modes of representation together is particularly appropriate when communicating within the specialised discourse in science classrooms. In these contexts, complex concepts can be more effectively communicated by embedding two or more modes to convey a meaningful science idea. Therefore, written words must also be used to improve content interactivity and learners’ engagement. Nixon et al. (2015) show that students must be taught to communicate about biological science in a way that acknowledges the complex nature of scientific concepts. They must be able to determine what modes are being used and how each mode is used. Students should also be able to make meaning (understand, learn from, and create) from the modes used in representing scientific concepts (Nixon et al., 2015).

In early childhood and early primary classrooms, multimodality refers to the intentional design of various learning experiences that provide various access points for young learners to make meaning, participate, and express their understanding. This may include children learning science concepts via educators’ explanations, visuals, hands-on-materials, movement, music, drawing, and digital interactions. This aligns well with practitioner-focused scholarship that focuses on the value of multimodal learning designs to support diverse learners by enabling flexible methods to access learning content and express understating (McCormick et al., 2023).

While the focus of this study is on biological science instructions in EC (three years and above) and EP (Foundation to Year Two), two critical objectives will be investigated. First, this study will explore current perceptions and practices around applying multimodal tools to teach various aspects of science, including biological science in EC and EP education. This step is crucial for identifying potential biases or gaps in the curriculum. Secondly, through a review of the literature, this study will look at the main challenges and concerns regarding integration of gamified and interactive biological science resources in EC and EP education settings.

Despite early childhood science education being examined in previous reviews, there is still a gap in how multimodal resources as well as digital and non-digital interactive tools are integrated in early years education to boost biological science learning and teaching. Existing studies have often focused on early science learning in general or around children’s science concept formation across early childhood, or science learning as situated in the context of the big ideas of ‘general science’ as part of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) play (Kos et al., 2024), rather than mapping the multimodal design features, implementation process, and evaluation of these innovative approaches in the context of teaching biological science concepts, particularly linking to multimodal learning approaches. Therefore, this scoping review focuses on recent international literature to identify how multimodal and interactive approaches are utilised in early science education and STEM contexts in general. The findings are then expressed to advance biological science education in the early years.

In this section, policy and curriculum examples are purely used to frame the problem, drawn primarily from an Australian context. However, the scoping review itself focuses on international research evidence, and the gaps highlight various challenges identified internationally. This scoping review is driven by the need to improve early biological science learning. However, the scoping process indicated that many relevant multimodal approaches are reported under broader “early STEM” or “early science” keywords. Hence, this scoping review explores multimodal approaches across early science and STEM literature while explicitly analysing what evidence exists for biological science learning and where the gaps within this area of science are.

There is no doubt that multimodality has long been identified as a necessity for children’s overall learning. However, there exists a gap in how multimodal pedagogy is being applied in early science when digital tools are integrated as part of teaching practice, and what the implications are for early biological science learning. This scoping review aims to address this gap by mapping the multimodal and technology-integrated practices applied in early childhood and early primary science education. We consider how educators and children coordinate scientific talk, gesture, play, and digital resources with a specific focus on all aspects of biology as an important area of science. This focus aligns with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)’s perspective that digitalisation is reshaping childhood experiences. As a result of this perspective, early childhood education will play a crucial role in supporting development, learning, and wellbeing while navigating the opportunities and risks of digitalisation (OECD, 2025a).

This scoping review is timely considering recent OECD policy arguments that discuss that effective digital education requires purposeful pedagogical adaptation, rather than the simple transfer of traditional instruction into digital formats. The OECD (2025a) emphasises the importance of critically examining how educators integrate technologies into teaching and learning, a concern that is directly addressed in this review through the synthesis of evidence on early science education. By analysing multimodal and technology-enhanced teaching practices across early science and explicitly interrogating the biology-specified subset, the review provides a structured account of emerging approaches while identifying areas where biological science learning remains underrepresented. To ensure alignment between these policy priorities and evidence base, the research strategy and eligibility criteria were refined to foreground biological science concepts alongside multimodality. Consequently, findings are reported in relation to review questions and additional sub-questions, with areas of limited biology focus evidence identified as key gaps.

2. Methodology

A scoping review was undertaken to investigate current perceptions and practices around applying multimodal tools to teach various aspects of science, including EC and EP biological science. It also reviews the challenges, concerns, and recommendations concerning gamified and interactive biological science resources used to enhance this area of teaching and learning. The scoping review does not aim to examine all the available literature, but rather ‘scope out’ (past 7 years; 2019–2025) what is available within a specific search framework. The following five steps have been adapted by drawing inspiration from the study by Roberts et al. (2025), thus ensuring the methodology for this scoping review paper is robust and follows previously published and validated protocols.

Identification of Relevant Studies

The goal of this scoping review was to develop a baseline knowledge of the research literature surrounding the application of multimodal and gamified resources in teaching biological science to young learners, identify any gaps in the literature, and make recommendations for future research (Figure 1). A protocol was developed following the Arksey and O’Malley (2005) framework, including the following:

• Identifying the research questions. Firstly, what are the current perceptions and practices around applying multimodal tools to teach various aspects of science, including biological science in early childhood and early primary education? Secondly, what are the challenges and concerns regarding the integration of gamified and interactive science resources in early childhood and early primary education settings? To assist in answering these, two subsidiary questions were formulated:
  • How does the effectiveness of multimodal tools in enhancing student engagement and understanding of scientific concepts compare to other STEM-related topics?
  • How is the impact of gamified and interactive science resources on students’ learning outcomes and motivation in early childhood and early primary settings being assessed?
• Identifying relevant studies. Eligibility criteria for articles were:
  • Published in the last 7 years;
  • Published in English;
  • Peer reviewed;
  • With children aged 3 to 8 years;
  • Available in full text.

To ensure alignment with the review focus, biological science education was chosen as learning about living systems and living things, including (but not limited to) human and plant growth, environment and habitats, life cycles, as well as relationships between plants, animals, and humans. Therefore, studies were included if they specifically addressed biological and life science content or if they examined multimodal and innovative resources in early years’ science learning.

The databases searched included ProQuest Central, MDPI, Frontiers, Springer, and Taylor and Francis journals due to their reputable sources within the early childhood, education and science disciplines. The search terms were “early childhood” and “early primary” as well as “STEM”. These terms were chosen to ensure results that were directly related to the research questions, while also being specific to the area of early childhood and early primary education.

This scoping review was limited to the most recent 7 years of studies to map multimodal, interactive, and technology-enhanced practices (e.g., digital games and robotics) within early science education. This tight time frame was chosen to reflect the rapid advancements in educational technologies and avoid outdated technologies.

3.

Study selection. From the initial database search, 112 papers were identified. When the English criteria were applied, the number was reduced to 98 and the full text criteria reduced the number to 81. When the last seven years criteria were applied, the number was reduced to 52. To be more specific to the research questions, the search term “science education” and the term “multimodal” were then added to the filtering process. This resulted in a further 18 studies being removed as they did not include these terms. This reduced the number to 34. After the researchers’ initial reading of the 34 abstracts of these papers, a further 22 were removed as they were not specifically connected to the multimodal and interactive teaching of science subjects in early childhood and early primary settings. Full details of the final 12 articles are included in

Table 1. Full details of the papers.

Study	Title	Location of the Study/Samples	Research Questions/Aims	Methodology/Data Analysis Plan	Key Findings and Implications
Kewalramani et al. (2024)	A Systematic Review of the Role of Multimodal Resources for Inclusive STEM Engagement in Early Childhood Education	Mainly Australia; 29 websites + 13 frameworks (children from birth to 8 years)	Examine the role of multimodal learning resources in promoting inclusive STEM engagement for young children (birth–8 years).	Narrative document analysis using a social semiotic multimodal framework, qualitative (document analysis; narrative approach)	Most STEM resources are text-heavy, rarely interactive, and inclusivity is largely missed
Silva et al. (2024)	An Evaluation of the Experimental Science Teaching Programme for Primary Education from the Teachers’ Perspective: An Educational Design Research Journey	Portugal; 10 primary school teachers (children aged 6–10 targeted)	How to systematically promote experimental science teaching in primary education with IBSE and STS orientation, and how to develop coherent assessment tools for children’s learning	Educational design research with final data via questionnaire survey, quantitative (survey analysis)	Teachers found resources effective and provided continuous feedback as wider adoption and teacher training needed
Bowen et al. (2022)	Chapter 9: Bee-Bot Robots and Their STEM Learning Potential in the Play-Based Behaviour of Preschool Children in Canada	Canada; preschool children (ages 3–5) via informal observations and curriculum review	Explore how Bee-Bot robots can support STEM learning through play-based activities in early childhood education and prepare children for formal schooling	Review of frameworks, word count analysis, informal observations, conceptual analysis; qualitative (document review + informal observation; conceptual analysis)	Bee-Bots support early STEM skills via guided play and educator support; professional development and policy backing needed
Kos et al. (2024)	Chapter 18: Learning Biology in the Early Years Through Nature Play in the Forest: An Exploratory Study from Slovenia	Slovenia; preschool near semi-natural forest; 21 children aged 4–6	How often do “bio play” episodes occur in nature play? Which organisms do children engage with? What types of bio play emerge?	Exploratory case study; unstructured forest play; video coding; qualitative (case study; thematic coding)	Nature play sparked curiosity, empathy and observation; teacher involvement deepened learning
Gözüm (2022)	Chapter 21: Digital Games for STEM in Early Childhood Education: Active Co-playing Parental Mediation and Educational Content Examination	Turkey; 12 children aged 60–72 months and their parents	Do digital games played by children contain quality STEM educational content? How do parents apply the “active co-playing mediation” strategy when playing digital games with STEM content with their children?	Qualitative (interviews + document analysis)	Many games supported STEM skills and active co-playing helped support safety; the need for better designed apps and parent guidance was clear via this study
Nikolopoulou (2022)	Chapter 6: Digital Technology in Early STEM Education: Exploring Its Supportive Role	Early childhood education (ECE) settings globally, no single country-specific sample; examines the supportive role of ICT (educational digital technology) in early STEM education	To explore how digital technology tools (ICT) complement and enhance STEM learning in early childhood; investigates integration of ICT in STEM activities and its impact on skills development	Literature-based conceptual analysis, qualitative (conceptual analysis)	Digital tools can complement early STEM education by enhancing problem-solving skills and creativity; however, teacher guidance and focus on the age-appropriate design is crucial
Alotaibi (2024)	Game-based learning in early childhood education: a systematic review and meta-analysis	Global scope; studies from North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East; focuses on effectiveness of game-based learning (digital and non-digital) for children aged 3–8 years	To synthesise evidence on the impact of game-based learning on five key outcomes: cognitive development, social development, emotional development, motivation, and engagement	Systematic review and meta-analysis; effect sizes, random-effects model; quantitative (meta-analysis; experimental/quasi-experimental focus)	Game-based learning improved cognitive, social, emotional, motivation, and engagement outcomes; challenges include quality control, skill transfer, and screen-time balance
Lee et al. (2024)	Incorporating Humanoid Artificial Intelligence (AI) Robots into Early Childhood Education	Global perspective (USA and South Korea); focuses on practical integration of humanoid AI robots in early childhood classrooms; addresses AI literacy and developmentally appropriate activities for young learners	To propose a framework for introducing humanoid AI (H-AI) in early childhood education; goals included introducing AI concepts, building child-AI relationships, designing interactive activities, and tackling challenges	Conceptual and practice-oriented paper; qualitative (conceptual/practice analysis)	Robots can support interactive learning and AI literacy, but some challenges, including cost, teacher training, and ethical concerns remain noticeable
Volpe and Gori (2019)	Multisensory Interactive Technologies for Primary Education: From Science to Technology	Italy; focus on primary education, especially math learning, using multisensory interactive technologies	To explore how multisensory technologies (visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetics can enhance learning; proposes guidelines for integrating these technologies into embodied and enactive pedagogical approaches	Conceptual analysis grounded in neuroscience and design experiences; qualitative (conceptual analysis)	Multisensory approaches can enhance engagement and inclusion when grounded in pedagogy; implementation requires teacher involvement and rigorous evaluation
Fragkiadaki et al. (2023)	Science Concept Formation During Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Early Childhood: Developing a Scientific Motive Over Time	Conducted in early childhood education settings in Australia; focus on how science concepts and a scientific motive develop from infancy through toddlerhood to early childhood.	To explore how children form science concepts and develop a scientific motive over the first five years; investigates how teachers create conditions for sustained orientation toward science learning	Longitudinal design with video observations and thematic coding; qualitative (longitudinal observational; dialectical–interactive method)	Scientific motives and concepts develop over time when teachers sustain inquiry and narrative-rich play; highlights the social nature of learning
Guarrella et al. (2022)	Science Education in Early Childhood Education—Are We Approaching a Cure for the State of Chronic Illness?	Focused on Australian early childhood education policy and practice; revisits the previous diagnosis of science education as suffering from “chronic illness” due to low priority compared to literacy and numeracy	To analyse the current state of science education in early childhood settings; examines policy developments, interventions, and prospects for systematic integration of science learning	Policy analysis and review of frameworks; qualitative (policy analysis + literature review)	Science remains underprioritised, and teachers’ confidence and systemic curriculum integration are critical for sustained improvement
Kähler et al. (2020)	The development of early scientific literacy gaps in kindergarten children	Conducted in Germany using longitudinal data from the National Educational Panel Study (NEPS); focuses on development of scientific literacy (SL) from kindergarten to Grade 3 and factors influencing disparities	To examine how scientific literacy (SL) develops over time and whether early gaps persist; identify structural and process features of home and kindergarten that affect initial SL and its growth	Longitudinal design; latent growth curve models, large sample; quantitative (longitudinal statistical modelling)	Early disparities linked to language and socio-economic factors persisted over time; early, targeted supports are needed to reduce inequities

.

4.

Charting the data. The data were charted by authors according to year of publication, title, author/s, location of the study and sample size, research aims/questions, theoretical perspective, methodology/data analysis plan, and findings/implications. The 12 publications were divided among the researchers, with each paper to be read in full by at least two authors to ensure that personal bias and opinions were eliminated.

Collating, summarising, and reporting the results. All three authors met to complete the thematic analysis based on the reviewers’ notes to look for common opinions, differences, and relationships. Authors then examined Table 1 to cross-evaluate the research questions and create a final report. This process led to the identification of three specific themes within which to categorise the 12 papers: digital and multimodal tools for early STEM learning, role of educators and parents in facilitating STEM learning, and equity, inclusion, and systemic integration of science education.

It was quite noticeable throughout the screening process that biology-explicit multimodal studies were rare compared to the larger body of early STEM and early science education research. Hence, this was identified and reported as a large gap in the current international landscape of early biological science education and STEM integration practice in general.

3. Results

3.1. Nature and Extent of Papers

In terms of the overall demographics and structure of the 12 reviewed papers, they came from eight countries, including three with global perspective; four from Europe, i.e., Germany (n = 1); Italy (n = 1); Portugal (n = 1), and Slovenia (n = 1); one from Turkey; three from Australia; and one from Canada. Out of the 12 papers, nine of them utilised qualitative research approaches (highlighted in blue in Table 1), including interviews (n = 1), document analysis (n = 3), narrative approach (n = 1), case study (n = 1), observation and video analysis (n = 2), conceptual analysis (n = 4), and policy analysis (n = 1). Three papers out of 12 utilised quantitative research approaches, (highlighted in green in Table 1) including surveys and questionnaires (n = 1), meta-analysis (n = 1), and longitudinal statistical modelling (n = 1). A total of five of the articles were published in 2024, with another six in 2022, and one in 2019.

Of the 12 articles reviewed, seven directly focus on digital and technology integration in early STEM education to analyse how technology (ICT, robots, AI, games, multimodal tools) supports STEM learning in early childhood and early primary education (Kewalramani et al., 2024; Bowen et al., 2022; Gözüm, 2022; Nikolopoulou, 2022; Alotaibi, 2024; Lee et al., 2024; Volpe & Gori, 2019). Three articles explore pedagogical approaches and teaching strategies for science (STEM) and focus on inquiry-based learning, play-based science, teacher practices, as well as assessment frameworks (Silva et al., 2024; Kos et al., 2024; Fragkiadaki et al., 2023). The last two articles focus on broader systematic issues, policy analysis, and longitudinal development of scientific literacy (Guarrella et al., 2022; Kähler et al., 2020).

3.2. Main Themes of Findings from Reviewed Papers

As outlined in Step 5 in the Methods section, three main themes were identified across the analysis of the 12 articles (see

Table 2. Themes and number of papers within each for analysis.

The Digital and Multimodal Tools for Early STEM Learning	The Role of Educators and Parents in Facilitating STEM Learning	The Equity, Inclusion, and Systemic Integration of Science Education
Play-based and game approaches (n = 4)	Direct classroom practices (n = 4)	Resource-level inclusion (n = 3)
Emerging technology and multimodal innovations (n = 3)	Broader capacity-building and systemic efforts (n = 3)	Policy-level and systemic equity efforts (n = 2)

), which are discussed in the following sections of this paper:

• Digital and multimodal tools for early STEM learning;
• The role of educators and parents in facilitating STEM learning;
• The equity, inclusion, and systemic integration of science education.

The following Section 3.3, Section 3.4 and Section 3.5 highlight these themes in turn, starting each section with a short statement that links the theme to the thematic synthesis in Table 2. Then, a detailed analysis of how the included studies support the themes is added to provide more context and clarity around each theme.

3.3. Digital and Multimodal Tools for Early STEM Learning

This theme discussed how game-based learning has become a popular and effective pedagogical approach in early childhood education, offering opportunities to enhance social, cognitive, and emotional development via play-based environments. Both digital and hands-on play-based activities are crucial to support children’s overall learning, especially in early years. A meta-analysis of 136 studies by Alotaibi (2024) reported a moderate to large positive impact of game-based learning on social skills, cognitive development, emotional regulation, motivation, and engagement. On the other hand, digital technology more broadly plays a supportive and complementary role in early STEM education, offering multimodal and interactive tools that enrich inquiry-based learning (Nikolopoulou, 2022). The findings of Alotaibi’s (2024) research emphasise the potential of well-designed games to improve problem-solving, collaboration, and critical thinking in children aged 3 to 8 years (Alotaibi, 2024). Recent studies on STEM-based games also highlight their role in enhancing mathematical reasoning and engineering concepts through playful design (Gözüm, 2022).

In addition to cognitive benefits, well-designed digital games and technologies influence social and emotional development, as well as family engagement. Parental mediation strategies, specifically active co-playing, have the potential to enhance the educational value of STEM-based games by transforming them into scaffolding tools that support children’s overall learning (Gözüm, 2022). The role of educators and parents in facilitating game-based learning will be explained in more detail in the next theme.

In another study, Nikolopoulou (2022) explains that multimodal technological toys such as robotics, virtual simulations, and narrative-rich educational videos have the potential to enhance computational thinking, mathematical skills, and scientific inquiry in young learners. Programmable educational robots such as Bee-Bots provide opportunities for young learners to engage in sequencing, spatial reasoning, and problem-solving while exploring concepts of directionality and measurement (Bowen et al., 2022). Activities as such combine coding with foundational mathematics and science to lay the benchmark for later academic achievements, keeping in mind that the effective implementation of such activities also depends on educators and parents’ guidance to provide high-level supervision and advice (Nikolopoulou, 2022). Diving more into emerging technologies in education, it has been shown that humanoid AI robots introduce new dimensions to early childhood education by enabling interactive and personalised learning experiences (Lee et al., 2024). Integrating social robots into classrooms can enhance AI literacy and computation thinking via scaffolded activities such as verbal and collaborative storytelling. These activities can improve language development and empathy, complementing hands-on and play-based learning; however, ethical considerations, high cost, and adult supervision and training pose significant challenges (Lee et al., 2024). The authors emphasised that humanoid robots should support, not replace, human interaction. This highlights the importance of building relationships and guided learning, which are essential in early childhood education.

The important point that educators and researchers need to keep in mind is how well the games are designed, what learning objectives are being addressed, and what the expected learning outcomes are. Hence, concerns around the quality of games, transferability of skills, as well as potential excessive screen time remain critical and highlight the need for scaffolded hands-on activities and appropriate integration of multimodal teaching and learning techniques. Multimodal and multisensory approaches can generally expand the possibilities for inclusive and engaging STEM learning. Kewalramani et al. (2024) highlight multimodal teaching resources, such as games and AI-interfaced robotic toys (including text, sound, gesture, and haptic feedback), as vital for boosting creativity and inquiry, yet most current educational resource lack a meaningful balance between digital and hands-on learning.

In another similar study conducted by Volpe and Gori (2019), multisensory technologies grounded in enactive pedagogy is highly valued where learning occurs through interaction and engagement. Enactive pedagogy is a type of pedagogy that focuses on learning through active interaction with the environment, emphasising hand-on learning and sensory engagement (Gonçalves et al., 2024). It helps deepen the understanding of scientific concepts and support learners with diverse needs via connecting physical actions with sensory cues. Volpe and Gori (2019) also explain that mapping motor actions to auditory and visual cues improves conceptual understanding and engagement, especially for learners with diverse learning and sensory needs. In this study, researchers describe a multimodal game called “RobotAngle” where students use body movements such as opening their arms to form angles. A motion sensor captured these movements and translated them into visual and auditory feedback, enabling learners with sensory difficulties to understand geometric concepts via multiple sensory channels.

Despite these studies and advancements, gaps remain when designing educational resources, particularly in linking scientific concepts to everyday experiences and ensuring engagement and inclusivity by adapting to children’s learning and sensory needs and the durability of information received (Volpe & Gori, 2019). Durability of received information refers to how well and how long knowledge and skills are retained once the learning is completed (Di Fuccio et al., 2025). In the RobotAngle context, it means that a multisensory exercise, such as physically forming angles and receiving real-time feedback, can help learners retain scientific concepts more efficiently over time compared to briefly teaching the concepts. The evidence base is fragmented, with limited attention to discipline-specific biological concepts, pedagogical coherence, and the sustained integration of digital hands-on modalities to support concrete science learning outcomes. These identified gaps provide a clear rationale for further research and to conceptualise how and why multimodal pedagogical approaches can be designed to enhance early biological science learning.

3.4. Role of Educators and Parents in Facilitating STEM Learning

This subsection focuses on the second theme highlighted in the thematic synthesis that is summarised in Table 2: the role of educators and parents in facilitating STEM learning. This theme was identified because multiple studies included in this scoping review highlighted adult mitigation through guided inquiry, co-play, as well as intentional design of learning environments as one of the main conditions shaping an effective multimodal and play-based STEM learning experience in early childhood and early primary education. The analysis below explores how these adult facilitation practices were described and why they were selected as central to learning outcomes across various papers studied in this scoping review.

Teachers, educators and parents play a crucial role in shaping the environment under which children meet, make sense of, and learn STEM concepts to find answers to their important foundational questions about the world around them. It is proven that adult mediation via narrative framing and guided inquiry can seed and sustain scientific motivation from early years through to preschool and primary school (Fragkiadaki et al., 2023). The same study also demonstrates that educators who introduce scientific concepts via storytelling and focus on problem-solving, precise language, criteria for investigation, and maintaining active play episodes enable young learners to align their motivation with scientific concepts and explorations. When play and learning become one, children’s collective learning deepens over time. Adult’s actions, including both educators and parents, can maintain scientific narration, scaffolding peer interaction as well as posing questions to channel children’s exploration in the right direction (Fragkiadaki et al., 2023). It is shown that parents who actively engage in play help their children to navigate challenges, interpret various modes of communication, and sustain interest compared to children who were involved in passive and unsupervised digital play (Gözüm, 2022). These findings show that family and educator involvement is crucial for maximising the benefits of digital games while ensuring safe and meaningful learning experiences.

Adult facilitation and supervision go beyond digital games and includes outdoor activities too. In a Slovenian forest school study, educators who were involved in co-play, setting up spaces and helping to scaffold children’s curiosity, increased the duration and depth of children’s nature play (Kos et al., 2024). When educators partake in such roles to scaffold children’s science learning, they can help sharpen observation, inquiry, communication skills and emotional engagement that is often lacking during passive or solo play among children. However, it is important to consider policy and programmatic work as a vital part of adult supervision in early childhood and early primary education. This is an important signal that adult practice, backed by policy, can systematically improve STEM education in early years (Guarrella et al., 2022).

Previous studies also show that digital tools can amplify but never replace the adult role (Bowen et al., 2022; Nikolopoulou, 2022). An appropriate digital and hands-on activity balance as well as appropriate adult involvement is beneficial to both educators and learners. Evidence from these studies focusing on early STEM with ICT highlight that educational robotics, simulations, rich educational videos, and well-designed games can reduce cognitive load, making invisible phenomena more digestible. To achieve these outcomes, teachers need to curate appropriate tasks, scaffold questioning, and connect digital experiences to hands-on learning and play (Bowen et al., 2022; Nikolopoulou, 2022). For instance, Bowen et al. (2022) show that educational robotics such as Bee-Bots are illustrative of this idea, and in a Canadian play-based context, teachers needed to programme floor robots to stimulate counting and critical thinking. Young learners often need adult modelling or peer mediation to transition from free exploration to guided play where multiple solutions are examined and various outcomes are tested at the right time and towards the appropriate direction.

Teachers also need to design the learning environment, choosing when and how physical and virtual activities are combined and scaffolded. Previous studies in early STEM education show that combining tangible hands-on activities and virtual visualisation can enhance the learning experience among young learners (Kos et al., 2024). This is where adult judgement steps in and plays a vital role in children’s overall learning. Teachers should decide, based on prior experiences and targeted learning outcomes, whether children need hands-on grounding first or can start with virtual models before consolidating with materials. Teachers should also maintain a scientific language and criteria during various investigations as children cross between representations. This is where teachers can then leverage realistic fiction to open interoperation and help children transition towards the appropriate scientific concept (Kos et al., 2024).

Finally, adults create coherence across settings and time. It is shown that teachers prefer integrated activity proposals, original resources, and digital assessment games that align well with learning outcomes (Fragkiadaki et al., 2023; Guarrella et al., 2022). Teachers use such resources beyond pilot phases and recommend them to other teachers and parents. These findings highlight the importance of adult facilitation, whether in classrooms, forests, play worlds or robotic playrooms. They notice children’s curious ideas, pose criteria, maintain a scientific approach, and intentionally design spaces where young learners can share inquiry and find answers to their questions (Fragkiadaki et al., 2023; Guarrella et al., 2022).

3.5. Equity, Inclusion, and Systemic Integration of Science Education

This subsection focuses on the third theme highlighted in the thematic synthesis that is summarised in Table 2: equity, inclusion, and systemic integration of science education. Several included studies pointed to structural and contextual factors like curriculum prioritisation, not having access to high quality resources, as well as socio-economic or linguistic disparities as shaping young learners’ opportunities to have a meaningful engagement with science. The analysis below highlights how these systematic and quality dimensions were discussed across the reviewed literature and how they intersect with multimodal approaches in early science education.

Teaching science in early childhood and early primary settings has always been overshadowed by other core subjects such as literacy and numeracy. Historically, Fensham (1991) as cited in Guarrella et al. (2022), characterised early childhood education as being in a state of “chronic illness”; however, more recent studies show that many underlying challenges remain unchanged in practice and contemporary policy. For example, a recent study that revisited this diagnosis highlighted a continuing concern about the systematic embedding of science in early childhood settings and a heavy reliance on individual educators to embed innovative approaches in teaching science (Guarrella et al., 2022). Despite the very important role of scientific phenomena in day-to-day life, science was always perceived as less crucial compared to other subjects.

Early Years Learning Frameworks (EYLF) in Australia and many other similar frameworks worldwide acknowledge a holistic development approach, failing to explicitly embed science concepts or terminology and leaving the implementation to teachers’ discretion (Guarrella et al., 2022). This reliance on individual educators can be problematic as opportunities for science learning hinge on teacher confidence and motivation rather than structural guarantees. In addition, the goal of other national initiatives such as Australia’s National STEM School Education Strategy and programmes like Little Scientist is to promote the perceived worth of science by including inquiry-based pedagogies and professional developments for educators (MacDonald et al., 2020). Studies show that Little Scientist enhanced teachers’ confidence and student engagement with STEM-related activities, highlighting the potential of targeted professional development among early childhood educators and early primary teachers (MacDonald et al., 2020).

Inequities in science education is another global concern that needs to be addressed here. Recent studies show that inequities in science education start early and continue over time (Kähler et al., 2020). A study of 2937 German kindergarten children showed large disparities in scientific literacy connected to parental education, socio-economic status, and linguistic background (Kähler et al., 2020). Children from families where a language other than German was spoken, or parental education was limited, showed lower scientific literacy at kindergarten entry. Even though scientific literacy grew through Grade 3, initial gaps remained untouched, showing that primary school does not solely compensate for early disadvantages.

Furthermore, inclusion of science education should be at the heart of designing and delivering scientific concepts to young learners. The integration of multimodal teaching resources emphasises the intersection of inclusion and innovation in early science education. According to Volpe and Gori (2019), multisensory technologies that leverage visual, auditory, and haptic modes can offer valuable learning experiences that align with developmental science and support diverse learners. In addition, multimodal resources such as digital games, robotics, and interactive narratives create inclusive pathways for STEM interaction and engagement by connecting physical and virtual environments and addressing various learning styles (Kewalramani et al., 2024). However, the same study reveals that such resources are still very limited and often lack cultural representations and inclusion aspects in general (Kewalramani et al., 2024).

Previous studies also indicate that there is a need for meeting quality standards and a collaborative design process, prior to embedding digital learning resources into teaching ecosystems (Papadakis & Kalogiannakis, 2022). It is now obvious that digital games exemplify both opportunities and challenges for systematic integration. When parental mediation is added to digital games, this can scaffold scientific reasoning and problem-solving as well as mitigate risks related to passive digital play (Gözüm, 2022). Parents who engage in dialogic interactions during gameplay enhance children’s conceptual grasp of STEM content and promote metacognitive skills, underscoring the relational dimension of equity in digital learning contexts. However, the educational value of many commercially available apps remains questionable, with content often skewed toward entertainment rather than inquiry (Papadakis & Kalogiannakis, 2022).

Advancing equity and inclusion in early science education needs a systematic approach that considers both ad hoc interventions as well as technological novelty. Mandating explicit integration of science content supported by ongoing and sustainable professional learning are crucial in creating an inclusive and meaningful learning environment. Finally, longitudinal evidence underscores the urgency of early intervention: without structural reforms and intentional practices, initial gaps in scientific literacy will calcify, constraining children’s future participation in STEM and perpetuating cycles of educational disadvantage (Kähler et al., 2020; Guarrella et al., 2022). Accordingly, this study addresses these structural and pedagogical gaps by systematically examining current practices and challenges in the use of multimodal tools for early science education. The next section discusses how the scoping review findings explained thus far are being conceptualised into a coherent, equity-focused, multimodal pedagogical approach for teaching biological science in early childhood and early primary contexts.

4. Discussions

In exploring the current perceptions and practices as well as concerns and challenges around applying gamified and multimodal tools to teach various aspects of science, including science in early childhood and early primary education, it became clear from the previous literature that gamified and multimodal resources can increase children’s engagement and boost their creativity. However, there were noticeable challenges and concerns around parent and educator supervision and guidance, the right blend of online and hands-on activities, as well as limited access to the appropriate scientific educational games that follow defined learning objectives. Thus, based on the review of the literature and examination of additional resources, a serious need for designing and implementing more STEM-based games in early childhood and early primary education was identified. It was also identified that these games need to be multimodal and interactive enough to create a right balance between technology-based activities as well as outdoor play, allowing children to benefit from both experiences. This draws from the key elements of digital and multimodal tools for early STEM learning, the role of educators and parents in facilitating STEM learning, and the equity, inclusion, and systemic integration of science education.

Insights from this review inform the direction of future research and practical implementation strategies. First, the literature review showed the great potential of game-based and multimodal teaching approaches and their ability to enhance children’s motivation, engagement, and cognitive development (Alotaibi, 2024). Studies also highlighted that STEM-based digital games can support problem-solving and conceptual understanding when combined with active parent mediation (Gözüm, 2022). These findings suggest that future research should focus on developing rigorous and age-appropriate multimodal STEM-based resources that combine both digital and hands-on learning to increase children’s interaction and engagement (Nikolopoulou, 2022; Volpe & Gori, 2019).

Second, it was highlighted that the role of educators and parents is crucial in the successful implementation of multimodal and game-based learning resources. They can amplify the educational value of digital tools via guided inquiry, narrative framing, as well as active co-play. In addition, adult mediation can mitigate risks associated with passive and unsupervised digital use among children (Fragkiadaki et al., 2023; Gözüm, 2022). Scaffolding children’s questions and connecting digital activities to hands-on learning can create a coherence across settings and time and allow young learners to transition from free exploration to structured inquiry (Bowen et al., 2022; Kos et al., 2024). In conclusion, equipping educators with the skills to embed multimodal STEM-based resources effectively, in addition to strategies for parental engagement, are some of the essential elements for enhancing learning outcomes in early childhood and early primary education (Silva et al., 2024).

Thirdly, the literature review highlighted ongoing gaps in equity and inclusion within early science education. Studies show that despite massive technological advancements, there still exists an uneven access to high-quality multimodal resources, with many exciting tools lacking in cultural representation and inclusivity (Kewalramani et al., 2024). Undervaluation of science teaching in early years and disparities connected to socio-economic status, as well as other systematic issues, continue to constrain opportunities for scientific literacy development (Guarrella et al., 2022; Kähler et al., 2020). These challenges need to be addressed via structural reforms that mandate explicit science integration in early learning frameworks, the support of ongoing and sustainable professional development, and access to meaningful and tailored STEM-based multimodal resources.

Fourth, the findings emphasise the importance of creating a meaningful balance between digital and technology-based activities as well as play-based and hands-on learning. It is undeniable that digital games and robotics provide the opportunity for engagement and skill development, but the role of unstructured nature play and free exploration remain crucial to foster children’s curiosity and scientific observation (Kos et al., 2024). A hybrid model with the right combination of digital interactivity and experimental learning in natural environments should be designed so that children benefit from both modalities (Volpe & Gori, 2019).

Finally, the review highlights the importance of a collaborative and iterative design process between educators and researchers. A co-design process with input from educators and researchers can help ensure that multimodal tools are applied to address the intended learning outcomes and to boost children’s interactivity and engagement (Papadakis & Kalogiannakis, 2022). Integrating AI-driven tools into this process enables educators to design and deliver adaptive learning experiences and provide real-time feedback. In addition, iterative evaluation ensures that AI tools are responsive to young learner’s needs and pedagogical goals. Such collaborations will enhance the quality of educational resources and create a sense of ownership among educators and researchers working across early childhood and early primary education.

5. Limitations and Conclusions

The current scoping review study highlights that regardless of constant improvement and valuable studies in multimodal science education practices, several gaps and challenges persist. Various studies effectively combine online games and educational technologies with explicit links to real-world STEM contexts, but more studies are required to unfold the complexities of a meaningful balance between digital and physical game-based resources. Future research should focus on more multimodal scientific educational resources to create a desirable harmony between digital play, tactile, outdoor, hands-on, sensorial, and social learning experiences. This outlook will position early childhood and early primary education as active creators and critical thinkers in the current digital world. Drawing upon the findings of this scoping review study, the below five principles (Figure 2) are being conceptualised so that researchers, pedagogues, EC and EP professionals, together with commercial game-based developers, can apply them while designing games for science education.

Despite considering studies on AI-driven tools, including humanoid robots (e.g., Lee et al., 2024) in this study, the focus remained primarily on multimodal science education practices instead of in-depth analysis of AI-based learning tools or robotics. This selective scoping review means that various research aspects, such as ethical considerations and adaptive personalization, were not fully explored. In addition, studies not related to multimodality in STEM education were excluded which may limit the findings across broader scientific domains.

It is suggested that future studies can expand on these gaps by focusing on AI-based games and robotics in early childhood and early primary education via an inclusive and collaborative approach. This can include incorporating children’s voices in the process of game development, fostering a co-design process between educators, parents and children as well as ensuring ethical practices in AI-integrated tools. Most importantly, commercial developers integrating AI tools into children’s science learning should consider the development of AI humanoid robots and games to encompass multimodal features such as movement, dance, and play-based learning, and adapt to children’s needs for sensory, cognitive, social, and emotional development alongside scientific engagement.