Knowledge and Implementation of Special Educational Needs Strategies Among Primary School Teachers in Hungary: A Survey-Based Study

Abstract

This study examines primary school teachers’ theoretical and practical knowledge of special educational needs (SEN) in order to identify knowledge gaps and support competency development through targeted online training. The study aims to demonstrate that teachers’ current knowledge is often incomplete and that the year of qualification does not necessarily confer an advantage, as teacher training content has remained largely unchanged over recent decades. A simple random sampling method was applied, and in spring 2023, 121 primary school teachers completed a questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were used to assess prior knowledge, while repeated measures ANOVA examined the relationships between graduation year, teaching practice during training, theoretical knowledge, and practical application. Teachers who graduated in 2010 or later were more likely to have encountered students with SEN, and 83.6% of respondents reported an increase in the number of students requiring developmental support. Significant and large differences were found in the type of advice provided (t = −9.05, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.31), with referrals to professionals occurring more frequently than recommendations of online resources. The findings underscore the need to integrate multidisciplinary competencies into teacher education to support appropriate referral practices and highlight the potential of targeted online training to enhance teachers’ preparedness for SEN education. Adequate and up-to-date training is essential for educators to effectively support children’s cognitive and learning development.

1. Introduction

The terms ‘special educational needs’ (SEN; SNI in Hungarian) and ‘learning disability’ (LD; BTMN in Hungarian) have become increasingly familiar to both professionals and parents. This cannot be interpreted independently of systemic and structural changes in educational systems. While inclusive education has expanded in policy discourse, empirical research suggests that diagnostic practices and school placement decisions remain strongly influenced by institutional structures and available provisions. Although terminology is increasingly familiar, the placement of children in special or mainstream schools is influenced by systemic biases in diagnosis, affecting inclusive opportunities (Ebenbeck et al., 2022). Therefore, the growing familiarity of SEN-related terminology may reflect not only inclusive progress but also structural incentives toward categorisation and segregation.

Advances in assessment and developmental methods have identified a broader range of difficulties and challenges among pupils. This, in turn, promises improved care and a higher quality of life in the long term. Despite several studies confirming the need for change and occasional parental feedback, teachers in the 21st century are not equipped to educate heterogeneous groups of children with SEN (Dan et al., 2025; Lewis & Stojanovik, 2024).

Primary school teachers must engage in continuous professional development and foster a supportive, motivating environment to ensure the harmonious development of their students. Creating emotional support is laborious but rewarding, as teachers who experience pleasant subjective feelings provide more positive and constructive attitudes in their lessons (Burel et al., 2021). Dubinsky et al. (2013) emphasised that regular professional development training should include understanding fundamental phenomena such as neuroplasticity, not limited to subject matter expertise. Their research did not merely provide teachers with methodological knowledge; instead, it introduced them to the neurological aspects of learning processes, enabling a better understanding of their students and offering a new perspective on the classroom environment. Similarly, Alsolami and Vaughan (2023) confirm that elementary school teachers often feel they lack the theoretical skills needed to accommodate learners with disabilities, citing barriers such as a lack of appropriate teaching materials and limited knowledge about these learners. Although neuroscience research has shown that special education incorporates small elements into everyday practice, it remains a distinct field of study.

Students with difficulties often participate in everyday education, and primary school teachers are frequently unprepared to meet their needs- according to UNICEF’s (2013) summary, one of the most serious obstacles communities face in the areas of education and training is the lack of teacher knowledge related to inclusive education. Class teachers are responsible for teaching heterogeneous groups and advising parents when necessary. In contrast, special education teachers are competent professionals in areas such as targeted, individualised development, professional recommendations, and individual and group interventions. Classroom teachers can thus form a bridge between the child and the special education teacher, referring families to competent professionals when necessary. Methods such as Universal Design for Learning (UDL) have been developed to address this issue (AlRawi & AlKahtani, 2021). In contemporary inclusive education, the roles of classroom teachers and special education professionals are ideally framed by multi-tiered support models, such as UDL. These frameworks emphasise early identification, instructional differentiation, and collaboration rather than the direct implementation of therapeutic interventions by classroom teachers. The aim of our study is not to examine the applicability of models such as UDL, but rather to explore the prerequisites for their use: identifying students with difficulties and establishing a knowledge base that demonstrates solutions beyond traditional disciplines and teacher readiness is therefore framed as a pedagogical competency related to inclusive decision-making and collaboration rather than therapeutic expertise.

In recent years, there has been a rise in the popularity of various methods for developing movement, cognition, and speech. Many of these approaches are based on the foundational work of Jane A. Ayres (1920–1988), who explored sensory systems and their developmental potential (Kilroy et al., 2019). Since its introduction in the 1970s, the sensory integration method has provided children with complex and engaging developmental opportunities. Sensory integration and other neurodevelopmentally informed approaches continue to appear in professional discourse and training programmes; their direct applicability within classroom instruction remains very limited. Empirical evidence for their impact on core academic outcomes is mixed, and such approaches are primarily situated within therapeutic rather than pedagogical domains. In the context of schooling, their relevance lies mainly in informing teacher awareness and interdisciplinary collaboration, rather than in direct instructional implementation.

Hungarian children begin primary school at the age of 6, marking the start of their learning journey, which includes essential skills such as reading and writing. According to the Hungarian Central Statistical Office (2024 data), each class typically consists of 24 children, with one teacher responsible for teaching all subjects. This system can be supplemented, for example, by language teaching, which requires the presence of a separate teacher, but in most cases, one specialist monitors the progress and development of 24 children over a span of four years. During this period, the foundations are laid for the academic progress of the pupils, and it is therefore of paramount importance that teachers are aware of the milestones of ideal cognitive and sensorimotor development. Teachers should also be able to identify any potential issues and suggest appropriate support to parents when needed. In-service teacher training is compulsory for all professionals, but its content, form and funding are also decided on an individual basis. As of now, there is no standardisation for these programmes, and certain training modules have not been made compulsory for all teachers. Special education in Hungary has historically developed with a strong emphasis on therapeutic and rehabilitative approaches, which continue to influence teacher training and professional discourse. This context differs from models that primarily frame special education in terms of participation and access to curriculum.

Globally, the targeted development of sensory systems is already being utilised to support teachers’ work. In China, children aged 5–8 are prepared for school and learning through tasks designed to mature the sensorimotor system (Wang et al., 2022). Since 2000, China has also implemented a comprehensive national curriculum reform of compulsory education. This reform was motivated by the belief that the existing education system was “unable to fully adapt to the developmental needs of the times,” a rationale underpinning the reforms to meet the demands of quality-oriented education (Meng et al., 2021). While research in this field has often focused on individual sensory systems (Horváth et al., 2023a), a Hungarian-led research team analysed over 1300 publications on the developmental potential of proprioceptive systems. Their findings echo our observations and highlight the ongoing challenge of ensuring reliable and objective measurement in this area (Horváth et al., 2023b). Additionally, it has been shown that specific gross motor tasks can support higher cognitive processes. These tasks need not be confined to individual therapy sessions led by special needs teachers but can be effectively integrated into a school setting (Buzescu et al., 2020). A child’s personal development with SEN largely depends on the teacher and their professional skills. A continuously developing, contextually aware teacher must effectively support children with emerging or undiagnosed cognitive and sensorimotor challenges (Kolbina et al., 2023). The ongoing development of teachers’ social (Salimi & Fauziah, 2023) and digital competencies (Kim et al., 2023), as well as the expansion of professionals’ multidisciplinary tools (Salmerón Aroca et al., 2022), is necessary to meet the needs of 21st-century learners. In Switzerland, occupational therapists and in Argentina, teachers are being introduced to alternative modes of communication, such as braille and alternative and augmentative communication. Additionally, policymakers advocate for diverse and constructive teaching and learning approaches (Seoane-Martín & Rodríguez-Martínez, 2023). Many teachers in the study felt that specific in-service training was needed after their initial studies, which aligns with findings from other research emphasising the importance of practical in-service training. Various approaches have been developed to address anxiety and burnout during early teaching, including simulation sessions and brief, highly structured coaching sessions delivered within mixed-reality simulations (MRS) (Cohen et al., 2024). The present study does not argue for the implementation of therapeutic methods within classroom teaching. Instead, it focuses on teachers’ theoretical knowledge as a prerequisite for informed pedagogical decision-making, appropriate referral, and effective collaboration with specialised professionals. From an evidence-based perspective, such knowledge serves a supportive and interpretative function rather than constituting an instructional method in itself.

Therefore, our study also aims to address the challenges and questions raised in the international literature by offering professional training material for practitioners. In analysing the questionnaire results, we explored correlations between the time of graduation, knowledge of therapeutic methods, and the knowledge acquired during college education. We assumed that teachers would be familiar with somatosensory and cognitive therapies, which can be recommended for children with learning difficulties and those with a mental age of over six years, as these methods can support students facing challenges. We also hypothesised that the trend noted in the Central Statistical Office’s data—showing a significant increase in the number of pupils with special educational needs compared to 20 years ago—would influence the current training of student teachers, providing them with more up-to-date knowledge.

This study aims to explore primary school teachers’ theoretical and practical knowledge regarding the education of children with special educational needs and to offer opportunities for development through an online-based training programme. The underlying assumption of this study is that teachers may be more familiar with therapeutic methods that are not directly applicable to the age group they teach. As a result, despite possessing general knowledge about various therapies, teachers may be unable to provide age-appropriate recommendations to families seeking support. In this sense, the study does not evaluate the effectiveness of the therapeutic methods themselves, but rather explores a potential mismatch between teachers’ knowledge and its practical relevance within their professional role. The online training featured in our study serves as a motivational tool for participants—its content was presented on a pilot basis and requires further development and expansion.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Population

The study targeted professionals qualified to teach children aged 6–10 in primary schools. To effectively reach a broad audience, survey invitations were sent via email to 554 primary school principals and secretaries throughout Hungary. A simple random sampling technique was employed to ensure representation from all significant regions of the country. To achieve this, contacts within each Hungarian region and primary school were selected in equal proportions. School contact details were obtained from publicly accessible international educational databases, ensuring that all identified institutions had an equal opportunity to receive the invitation. The questionnaire was accessible to all teachers working in the contacted schools, and participation was entirely voluntary. This approach allowed us to connect with more professionals than individual inquiries did. Our key input requirement, which was that only currently teaching primary school teachers receive the questionnaire, was effectively met by the method used. The messages were sent simultaneously to the principals of the institutions, with identical content and deadlines for completion. Although the sampling procedure ensured equal access to participation, no demographic data were collected, and it was therefore not possible to determine the distribution of respondents by region, school characteristics, or teacher background. Consequently, the final sample reflects self-selection, and the representativeness of the respondents relative to the national teacher population cannot be assessed.

The questionnaire was filled out anonymously, and no personally identifiable information was collected. Participants were provided with the terms and conditions prior to completing the questionnaire, thereby giving their written consent for the use of their data. This consent was initiated by the process of filling in the questionnaire. Within two months, 121 primary school teachers completed the online questionnaire in the Spring of 2023, and 34 of these teachers applied for the training offered. Based on the number of contacted institutions, the response rate is relatively low. The response rate introduces the possibility of non-response and self-selection bias, as teachers with a stronger interest in special educational needs or professional development may have been more likely to participate. As no demographic data were collected, it was not possible to assess the extent of this bias or to compare respondents with the broader teacher population. Consequently, the findings should be interpreted with caution and cannot be generalised to the entire population of Hungarian primary school teachers. The results should be viewed as descriptive tendencies rather than generalisable patterns.

2.2. Objectives of the Study

The current volume of available international literature clearly indicates the interest and justification for the topic. In the coming years, further training courses are likely to be developed for professionals involved in the education of primary school children, providing a broader knowledge of the areas we have identified and practical experience.

Despite the subject’s growing relevance, no studies have assessed the knowledge of primary school teachers in specific areas of special educational needs. As the primary aim of general education is not to cover this area, its inclusion in training can be a major challenge. However, it would be a shame to deny that, given current trends, it is unlikely to be neglected in the long term.

The primary objective of this study was to explore whether there is a correlation between the amount and quality of theoretical knowledge about special educational needs and the year of teachers’ graduation. Additionally, the study aimed to determine how well current teachers can support families with children facing learning or coordination difficulties. Finally, we sought to assess respondents’ familiarity with the methods outlined in the questionnaire, identify which methods they are most acquainted with, and examine whether this familiarity is related to their year of graduation.

Our study’s results can significantly contribute to the development of initial college and supplementary training, the effective design of teaching processes and the success of integrating authentic, evidence-based methods in several areas.

2.3. Measurements

A self-developed questionnaire was used in this study, as existing instruments primarily focus on inclusive education, attitudes toward inclusion, or general special educational needs competence. In contrast, the aim of the present research was to map teachers’ familiarity with specific therapeutic approaches that are widely known and frequently discussed within the Hungarian professional context. Several therapeutic methods originating in Hungary or strongly represented in national practice enjoy considerable popularity among educators and parents. However, these approaches are not necessarily designed for, or applicable within, the age groups taught by primary school teachers. Existing questionnaires do not capture this contextual specificity, which necessitated the development of a new exploratory instrument tailored to the Hungarian setting.

The form was designed to assess both theoretical knowledge aligned with the training design and practical learning based on classroom experience. The questionnaire was developed to gather both qualitative and quantitative data while adhering to professional standards. The selection of questions followed a multi-stage process, which considered health, education, and public health aspects. This process involved consultations with co-professionals and experts to create a comprehensive final version of the questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of a mix of open-ended and closed-ended questions. It also included a combination of closed-ended items assessing familiarity with named therapeutic approaches and scenario-based items requiring respondents to select the most appropriate option from a limited set of alternatives. Scenario-based items were intended to capture recognition of age-appropriate applicability rather than to function as scale items. Responses to scenario-based items were treated as categorical data and analysed descriptively. No composite scores were calculated from these items, and they were not interpreted as indicators of overall competence.

Fifteen questions addressed general knowledge, followed by descriptions of 10 classroom scenarios in which teachers had to choose the most appropriate solution from three potential options. Respondents were asked to indicate their graduation year and whether they had received teacher training specifically focused on educating children at different developmental stages. As measurement, monitoring, and diagnostic systems evolve, it is expected that higher education will adapt to meet these needs and incorporate essential knowledge into training programmes. By demonstrating certain correlations and effects, we can potentially identify changes to the curriculum based on these outcomes.

To gauge the incorporation of new methods or tools to enhance the effectiveness of their work, respondents were asked if they had found it necessary to do so in their careers. They could answer “yes” or “no” or indicate they were not teaching. If they had sought support, they were asked to select from multiple options, including paper-based books or journals, online resources, consultations with professionals, or no additional information needed.

We also queried respondents about their knowledge of four popular developmental methods used in Hungary. After naming the therapy, respondents indicated whether they were familiar with the technique. If they answered “yes,” they could either describe what they knew about it or acknowledge that they knew the method but could not specify the training details.

Subsequently, we asked if they had recommended any of these methods to families. Response options included “no, because it was unnecessary,” “no because I am unfamiliar with the method,” or “yes.” If they answered affirmatively, they were asked to indicate the number of cases where the development process had been implemented, with options ranging from “none” to “over 15 pupils.”

The questionnaire also included questions about the teachers’ experiences and whether they believed the number of pupils with developmental needs had increased over the last five years. They could choose from “remained about the same,” “decreased,” or “increased.” They were asked an additional question about their coping strategies if they indicated an increase. Options included: “I could not help families,” “I could recommend a professional,” “I could recommend a credible online resource or paper-based literature,” “I could refer to a colleague,” or they could provide an individual response.

The questions were interrelated; sometimes, conflicting answers suggested uncertainty about the subject matter. After completing the questionnaire, teachers received information on how to apply for the in-service training.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

We performed our statistical analyses using JASP software (free software, available for download at https://jasp-stats.org/download/, version 0.17.1, accessed on 18 December 2023). In the descriptive statistics section, we reported the number of subjects (N), the mean values for the two groups, the standard deviation (SD), and the standard error (SE) of the groups. We employed a repeated measures ANOVA to compare data from the completed questionnaires. This analysis enabled us to examine the relationship between the respondents’ graduation dates and their knowledge of relevant domains. Statistical analyses were selected in accordance with the level of measurement and distributional properties of the data. Binary and categorical variables were analysed using descriptive statistics and non-parametric procedures where appropriate. Parametric analyses were applied only to variables that met the assumptions of continuity and normality. Repeated measures analyses were not used for categorical or nominal data. Only fully completed questionnaires were included in the final dataset. Incomplete responses were excluded prior to analysis; therefore, no item-level missing data were present in the analysed sample.

Given the exploratory nature of the study, the findings should be interpreted as indicative of tendencies in teachers’ familiarity with therapeutic approaches rather than as definitive evidence of knowledge levels or professional competence. The results do not permit causal interpretations or conclusions regarding the effectiveness of instruction.

3. Results

Over two-thirds of participants finished the questionnaire in 10 to 30 min. On average, they graduated in 1999, resulting in over 20 years of experience.

3.1. Obtained Theoretical Training

During teacher training, 41.8% of respondents reported needing to attend a course specifically designed to prepare them for teaching children with atypical developmental stages, and 4.9% could not recall attending such a course. In their college practice, 71 respondents had yet to encounter children with special needs, indicating that over half of the participants had interacted with students with special needs and methods without prior knowledge and training.

Based on a repeated measures ANOVA test, the medium F value and low p-value indicate a significant relationship between the knowledge of terms such as “special educational needs” (SEN), “integration,” and “learning or behavioural difficulties” (LD), and personal experience with children having these needs during college education to the time of graduation F(4.61, 133.54) = 3.85, p = 0.004. For the study population, highly significant differences were observed in the main effects of the investigated categories, F(1.15, 133.54) = 86.86, p < 0.001. The effect sizes indicated medium practical significance (η² = 0.300, ω² = 0.317), suggesting that these factors have meaningful relevance beyond statistical significance.

Post hoc test results indicate significant differences in knowledge of SEN and LD concepts and the opportunity to gain experience through personal encounters during college practice. Knowledge of the acronyms SEN and LD and the terms associated with special educational needs and difficulties in adjustment, learning, and behaviour was found to be almost identical. However, personal encounters with these issues during college practice were significantly less frequent among respondents (t = −11.18, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.69). The extreme effect size indicates that the difference is not only statistically but also practically significant. The negative sign also suggests that personal experience was at a significantly lower level than conceptual knowledge. Additionally, an interesting trend observed in the post hoc tests is that for respondents who graduated in 2010 or later, there were no significant differences in encountering children with atypical developmental patterns during college practice (group IV SEN-face-to-face encounter p = 0.68, group V SEN-personal encounter p = 0.35, group IV LD-personal encounter p = 0.11, group V LD-personal encounter p = 1.00). This suggests that more recent graduates encounter children with atypical developmental patterns during college practice.

The likely consequence is that 83.6% of respondents found it necessary to introduce a new method into their traditional teaching routine. Among the teachers surveyed, 87.7% had been involved in educating children with SEN in the last five years. In such situations, 38% of respondents had consulted a professional, and 37% had utilised online literature.

3.2. Therapy Knowledge

We listed five commonly recognised developmental programmes in Hungary. We assessed respondents’ familiarity with the Dévény Special Gymnastics Method (DSGM), Alapozó Therapy (Primer Gymnastics Training), Specialised Sensory Motor Training (TSMT), NILD (National Institute for Learning Development, which addresses learning challenges), and INPP (Institute for Neuro Physiological Psychology, which offers a non-invasive technique for assessing and addressing developmental immaturity). Among the respondents, the DSGM was the most well-known, with 36 participants indicating familiarity, while the INPP was the least recognised, known by only 2 respondents. Nevertheless, 63 individuals had already recommended at least one of the methods listed in the questionnaire.

The repeated measures ANOVA revealed no significant interaction effect, F(13.13, 380.71) = 0.71, p = 0.757. However, significant differences were found for the main effects of the therapeutic approaches examined, F(3.28, 380.71) = 62.11, p < 0.001. The effect sizes indicated medium magnitude (η² = 0.226, ω² = 0.227). The high F value and low p value suggest that there is a very significant difference in the awareness of therapies. Post hoc test results indicate significant differences in the knowledge of the therapies. Knowledge of the DSGM was significantly higher compared to INPP (t = −9.34, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.22) and NILD therapies (t = −9.58, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.25). Familiarity with TSMT therapy was also higher than with INPP (t = −10.87, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.42) and NILD (t = −11.11, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.45) (

Table 1. Post hoc test results comparing knowledge of various therapeutic methods.

		Mean Difference	SE	t	Cohen’s d	pbonf	pholm
DSGM	TSMT	0.081	0.053	1.527	0.199	1.000	0.510
	PGT	0.024	0.053	0.456	0.0590	1.000	1.000
	INPP	−0.497	0.053	−9.342	−1.217	<0.001	<0.001
	NILD	−0.510	0.053	−9.581	−1.248	<0.001	<0.001
TSMT	PGT	−0.057	0.053	−1.071	−0.139	1.000	0.855
	INPP	−0.578	0.053	−10.869	−1.416	<0.001	<0.001
	NILD	−0.591	0.053	−11.108	−1.447	<0.001	<0.001
PGT	INPP	−0.521	0.053	−9.798	−1.276	<0.001	<0.001
	NILD	−0.534	0.053	−10.038	−1.307	<0.001	<0.001
INPP	NILD	−0.013	0.053	−0.240	−0.031	1.000	1.000

PGT: Primer Gymnastics Training; p-value adjusted for comparing a family of 10. Results are averaged over the levels of time of graduation.

).

3.3. Referrals

Despite the teachers’ suggestions, 12.3% of respondents indicated that no developmental support was provided to the students, meaning these children did not receive assistance to address their difficulties. According to 83.6% of the respondents, there was a noticeable increase in the number of children requiring developmental support. Two respondents reported that they could not assist families in challenging situations and behaviours.

Data analysis explored the relationship between the need for family advice and the teachers’ graduation dates. The repeated measures ANOVA indicated no significant interaction effect, F(13.94, 404.16) = 0.67, p = 0.808. In contrast, significant differences were observed for the main effects of the counselling options included in the study, F(3.48, 404.16) = 42.98, p < 0.001. These effects were of medium magnitude, as indicated by the effect size measures (η² = 0.200, ω² = 0.199).

Post hoc tests showed significant variations in the types of advice provided by the respondents. Most participants had recommended some of the skill development methods they were familiar with to families. Among these, referral to a specific professional was the most common, as opposed to referral to an online resource (t = −9.05, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.31) or literature-based knowledge (t = −8.31, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.20). The year of completion did not affect the quality of advice; however, the type of advice given did. Families were most often referred to a professional, while referrals to online resources or literature were significantly less frequent.

During their college education, only two respondents reported receiving training that helped them become acquainted with the therapeutic methods available in their home country.

The 28% response rate to the training is notable, considering an online course conducted on a Saturday within two months of completion garnered significant interest despite the busy spring period. Following the 6 h online session, participants were asked to complete a shorter questionnaire about the content. All participants found the content and process logically structured and detailed, and individual evaluations confirmed that the practical examples were well-integrated into their daily teaching practices.

4. Discussion

The focus of the present study is not inclusive education or the implementation of inclusive instructional practices. Instead, it examines teachers’ familiarity with therapeutic methods that are prominent in Hungarian professional discourse. This distinction is essential, as knowledge of therapeutic approaches does not imply their pedagogical applicability within school settings. In the Hungarian context, teachers are frequently approached by families seeking guidance regarding developmental or therapeutic interventions. Teachers’ responses in such situations depend not only on their pedagogical expertise but also on their awareness of available therapeutic options and their relevance to specific age groups.

Our results indicate that the most widely recognised method among the responding teachers is the Dévény Specialised Gymnastics Method (DSGM), primarily used in early intervention to help infants develop ideal muscle tone. This popularity is likely due to recommendations from professionals in related fields, such as physiotherapists and midwives, who advocate its use for children’s development. Despite the clear need for collaboration with peers and professionals (Chow et al., 2024), we have also found that teachers often rely on their general knowledge when children are not referred to these specialists, which presents a significant issue.

The survey responses reveal a hierarchy of familiarity with various methods, as detailed in Table 1. After the DSGM, the following most recognised method is Specialised Sensory Motor Training (TSMT), followed by Alapozó torna (Primer Gymnastics Training). The least known methods are INPP and NILD. Typically, the first two therapies focus on development up to the age of 6 in Hungary, while other interventions are introduced as children grow older. Of the methods listed in the questionnaire, NILD is unique in its focus on alleviating learning difficulties and shaping learning processes from the first grade onwards, providing targeted support for issues such as reading, writing, or numeracy difficulties.

A noticeable trend from our data shows that teachers who graduated in 2010 or later encounter children with special educational needs during their college practice, but still need more theoretical knowledge. It is also noteworthy that the most familiar method among respondents is designed for developing muscle tone in infants. In contrast, methods for motor coordination are more relevant for preschool and school-age children.

Despite the growing need for specialised knowledge and tools, the challenge of disseminating this information persists. Consequently, many students may receive inadequate support each year due to a lack of adequate knowledge transfer and training.

Based on the questionnaire completed by 121 teachers, it is evident that there is still a need for solutions to identify the most relevant resources and effective development methods. While a thorough knowledge of all processes may be optional, a broad spectrum of assistance areas could benefit teachers in the long term. A training course with these objectives was designed and implemented, receiving positive feedback from all participants. According to the input, the participating teachers found the knowledge relevant, necessary, and valuable, suggesting that expanding such training, even with in-person participation, would be worthwhile. The number of applicants surpassed our expectations for several reasons. The weekend schedule, online accessibility, interactive format, and tailored practical examples all offered immediate support. Additionally, the one-day theoretical and practical experience could help address classroom challenges and establish a foundation in various therapeutic methods. In the future, we will definitely keep these features and add video and printable materials to the training programme.

To better support children, it is crucial to have teaching professionals equipped to guide and assist parents and caregivers (Almosallam et al., 2024). Our findings regarding parental education are consistent with previous studies indicating that parents of children with neurodevelopmental delays (NDD) can enhance their children’s social and communication skills and academic achievements (Aldharman et al., 2023).

Our study also sought to develop a new, effective in-service training programmeme, with the initial participants being the teachers who completed our questionnaires. Like our successful project, numerous other initiatives strive to develop innovative solutions. These include improved weight status and coordination (Keye et al., 2024), smartwatch-based systems for behaviour recognition and monitoring (Amiri et al., 2017), adapted physical activities (Orhan et al., 2023; Hattabi et al., 2022; Ludyga et al., 2022; Park et al., 2022), and even physically active lessons (Boat et al., 2022), all of which have shown promising results. The training program included in our study could be easily incorporated into Hungarian teacher training. We have developed a ready-made curriculum that can be implemented in just one day and could easily be integrated into students’ requirements through semesterly repetitions or as a series of modules that build upon one another. This approach would yield a high return on the time invested.

The theoretical basis of the training material used throughout the study is supported by research on children with ADHD, which has identified a possible association between ADHD symptoms and the persistence of the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR) (Konicarova & Bob, 2013; Bob et al., 2021). Teachers from mainstream education were included because studies on the neurodevelopmental maturation of children with active primitive reflexes (APRs) primarily focus on students in mainstream educational settings (León-Bravo et al., 2023), with the aim of facilitating timely support to alleviate associated symptoms. McPhillips and Jordan-Black (2007) further highlighted the impact of ATNR, demonstrating that its persistence affects core literacy skills, including reading, spelling, and non-word reading. Similarly, Matuszkiewicz and Gałkowski (2021) reported an association between developmental language disorder (DLD) and motor deficits related to uninhibited primitive reflexes.

Children’s cognitive development is a significant public health issue, so our study targeted those most involved in supporting students with difficulties. Many students lack the foundational skills necessary for optimal performance, which could potentially be addressed through public interventions. Factors such as the urban environment (Binter et al., 2022) and access to safe water and sanitation (Sania et al., 2019) can negatively affect cognitive and motor functions in children. The COVID-19 pandemic has also led to a notable decline in cognitive performance and physical fitness among French primary school children (Chambonnière et al., 2021). Socioeconomic status (SES) plays a crucial role in children’s cognitive development (Piek et al., 2008), particularly in executive functions (Oberer et al., 2017; Roebers et al., 2014). The literature often highlights fine motor movements (Michel & Molitor, 2022) or motor development in cognition (Dewey et al., 2002; Cadoret et al., 2018).

According to data from the Hungarian Central Statistical Office, the number of Hungarian children and pupils with special educational needs has increased 1.6-fold over the past 20 years. The rise in the number of children with integration, learning, and behavioural difficulties—and those who remain undiagnosed—raises concern. As the demographic of children with potential problems evolves, expanding and updating the knowledge of kindergarten, preschool, and teaching professionals is crucial. However, this is challenging as training is typically attended individually. Addressing this issue is a priority; if the trend continues, more than 150,000 children and pupils will require special educational needs support.

Despite the positive results, our study has limitations. We aimed to include a representative sample of professionals from all regions of the country, but this goal still needs to be fully achieved, leading to some regional imbalances in representation. Consequently, the results may only partially reflect the experiences of educators nationwide. The questions and situations included in the questionnaire are not validated, despite prior professional consultation. They are, therefore, rather subjective, based on the experiences of professionals providing the theoretical background for the research. It may be worth revising and possibly expanding them. Future studies must adopt a more comprehensive outreach strategy to address this issue.

5. Conclusions

Well-trained education professionals are crucial for the early identification of children with developmental difficulties. International research consistently demonstrates that optimal cognitive and physical development in children results from the collaborative efforts of multiple disciplines. From an educational perspective, familiarity with therapeutic approaches serves an informational and consultative function rather than an instructional one. Primary school teachers are not expected to implement therapeutic interventions; however, they are often required to interpret concerns raised by parents, recognise the limits of their own pedagogical role, and guide families toward appropriate professional support. In this context, knowledge gaps do not directly affect instructional outcomes, but may influence the quality and appropriateness of guidance provided to families.

Higher education, which involves training the next generation, often fails to keep pace with the latest research. Therefore, it could be beneficial to either incorporate this research into teacher training programmes or offer it as mandatory in-service training for all teachers.