Myth, Religion, and Narrative: The Tree Cult in Post-1980 Turkish Literature

Abstract

From past to present, the tree has functioned as a powerful symbol associated with birth, life, death and belief systems across cultures. In relation to cosmic order and divine connection, it has often been conceptualized as a cosmic entity. The tree cult, while sharing universal features rooted in religion and mythology, also carries distinctive meanings within Turkish cultural tradition. Drawing on this framework, this article examines the use of mythological elements in post-1980 Turkish literature through the lens of the tree cult. It first discusses the religious and mythological foundations of the motif and its specific manifestations in Turkish culture. The analysis then focuses on selected works by nine prominent authors—Murathan Mungan, Pınar Kür, Sevinç Çokum, İhsan Oktay Anar, Hasan Ali Toptaş, Orhan Pamuk, Latife Tekin, Murat Gülsoy, and Nazan Bekiroğlu—whose writings display strong representational capacity. Through thematic and textual analysis, the study explores how the tree cult is integrated into these literary works and offers a panoramic perspective on the relationship between mythology and literature in contemporary Turkish narratives.

1. Introduction

The human quest for meaning is rooted in the need to understand existence on earth, relationships with others, and the hidden dimensions underlying human presence. Throughout history, this need has been articulated through symbolic forms in diverse belief systems, mythological narratives, and literary traditions. Among these symbolic expressions, the tree occupies a prominent place in human cultural production, universally representing life, death, knowledge, youth, and the divine across cultures (Eliade 1965, p. 129). Extending into the earth through its roots, into the human world through its trunk, and into the sky through its branches, the tree has become a central and frequently referenced symbol in narrative discourse, particularly in relation to the representation of cosmic order, inner journeys, and humanity’s connection with the divine.

Due to their distinctive geographical conditions, the Turks historically lived in close contact with diverse religions and cultures, were influenced by them, and incorporated various belief systems into their own traditions. This interaction shaped their worldview and modes of understanding nature, paving the way for attributing spiritual meanings to certain natural entities, among which the tree cult occupies a prominent place. As one of the essential motifs of Turkish epics, the tree has been embedded in cultural tradition since ancient times (Gültepe 2015, p. 589). Jean-Paul Roux drew attention to the richness of Turkic myths and beliefs concerning trees and identified the Tree of Life as one of the major root myths in his study Sacred Plants and Animals in Central Asia (Roux 2000, p. 27, 2005). According to Roux, the belief that the tree is the source of life constitutes one of the fundamental concepts of Central Asian and Siberian mythologies (Roux 2005, p. 342). Similarly, Bahaeddin Ögel emphasized that mythological systems should be examined within their own cultural contexts and, in this framework, devoted a separate section to the “Tree Cult” in his study of Turkish mythology (Ögel 1995, p. 489). Murat Uraz, who regarded the tree as one of the five divine elements alongside fire, iron, earth, and water, highlighted the extensive scope of the tree cult among the Turks, particularly in relation to major life-cycle events such as birth, death, and marriage (Uraz 1992, p. 195). Ramazan Işık examined tree-related beliefs and associated cults among Turkic communities (Işık 2004), while Muharrem Kaya traced the origins of the tree cult in mythological traditions, with particular emphasis on the divinity of trees (Kaya 2007). Rövşan Alizade evaluated the tree cult within the broader framework of plant-related beliefs (Alizade 2012, pp. 47–56), and İbrahim Dilek discussed both the sacred and material significance of trees in Turkish culture (Dilek 2021). More specialized studies have focused on specific aspects of tree symbolism, including the mulberry tree (Gürsoy 2012), the Tree of Life (Arslan 2014), and the role of trees in Turkish state tradition (Yıldız Altın 2025). Among these contributions, the most comprehensive study of the tree cult in Turkish culture is Pervin Ergun’s monograph, which offers an extensive analysis of the mythological and religious dimensions of the tree motif and remains a key reference in this field (Ergun 2012).

It would not be feasible to document every study related to the tree cult or to provide an exhaustive bibliography; nevertheless, it can be stated with confidence that this motif, with its ancient roots, continues to persist in contemporary cultural contexts. Following 1980, postmodern texts became increasingly prominent in Turkish literature, one of whose defining characteristics is a sustained engagement with history. In contrast to modernism, which emphasizes historical progress and transformation, postmodernism maintains that fundamental human conditions remain largely unchanged and that claims of progress often conceal limitations within artistic production. From this perspective, forgotten or suppressed histories should be brought back into critical focus. However, unlike mimetic novels, postmodern narratives do not present history through idealized heroes or glorified events. Instead, they frequently problematize and even trivialize the official narratives of historical greatness and authority (Sazyek 2002, pp. 506–508). This approach is also reflected in the shift from macro- to micro-historical perspectives in the postmodern period. The new historicity approach, which challenges the possibility of objective historiography and emphasizes the historian’s situated perspective (Arseven 2022, p. 465), has significantly influenced this view. Accordingly, historical “facts” are understood not as neutral representations of the past but as interpretive constructions shaped by the historian’s social and intellectual context (Arslan Karabulut and Karagözoğlu 2024, p. 321)

In postmodern literary texts, history often functions as a narrative background rather than as a primary object of representation. Postmodern authors, while engaging with everyday life in historical contexts, frequently draw on traditional narrative forms such as epics and folktales, as well as on mythological, religious, and belief systems that shape collective experience. This study examines the elements through which postmodern stories and novels engage with the tree motif. Closely associated with both religion and mythology, the tree motif continues to circulate and acquire new meanings within the fictional world.

Although postmodernism became dominant in Turkish literature after 1980, authors working within classical and modernist traditions continued to produce literary works alongside postmodern writers. In particular, modernist authors focusing on isolated and alienated individuals in urban settings maintained their distinctive narrative approaches. As a result, classical, modernist, and postmodern texts developed in parallel in post-1980 Turkish literature. This coexistence of literary modes contributed significantly to the richness and diversity of Turkish literary production. Accordingly, texts that engage with the tree motif display considerable structural variation. In stories and novels written after 1980, the motif appears not only in classical narratives but also in modernist and postmodern works.

The article is structured into three main sections. Following the Introduction, the second section examines the characteristics of the tree cult and its manifestations in Turkish culture in detail. The third section focuses on selected Turkish literary texts published after 1980. This selection is informed by factors such as the rise of postmodern tendencies, growing interest in history and mythology, and the increasing visibility of symbols and motifs in literary production. In this section, works displaying traces of the tree cult are analyzed thematically using methods such as close textual reading and motif analysis, with findings supported by relevant secondary sources. The authors examined include Orhan Pamuk, İhsan Oktay Anar, Murat Gülsoy, Sevinç Çokum, Hasan Ali Toptaş, Latife Tekin, Nazan Bekiroğlu, Pınar Kür, and Murathan Mungan. These writers have played a significant role in shaping post-1980 Turkish literature through their strong representational capacities, and several continue to produce influential works. They are also deeply rooted in tradition, drawing inspiration from historical and cultural heritage. The works of these nine authors are examined in detail in order to enhance the reliability of the study and to demonstrate the diversity of the tree motif’s literary uses. This approach enables an assessment of multiple dimensions of mythology through a single motif—particularly the tree cult—and provides a solid foundation for future, more comprehensive research.

This article examines the use of mythological elements in post-1980 Turkish literature by analyzing the relationships among literature, religion, and mythology in selected texts. Within this framework, the tree cult is understood not merely as a system of belief but also as a set of ritual practices through which belief is expressed in concrete form. The third dimension of cultic structures consists of the narratives through which rituals are transformed into symbolic representations. However, it is neither possible nor theoretically productive to draw fixed and rigid boundaries among belief, ritual, and narrative. Rather than forming a linear sequence, these elements function as interrelated processes that mutually sustain one another. Accordingly, this study approaches the tree cult with particular attention to this permeability. In the literary works examined, the tree cult consistently operates within this dynamic interplay.

2. Between Nature and the Divine: Tree Cult in Turkish Culture

Belief systems are the fundamental elements which construct the cultural identity of the community to which they belong, serving the structures which satisfy the moral needs of the community’s individuals. The religious structure adopted by a community specifies the manners of self-description for individuals. At the same time, this structure shapes the cultural identity and common memory of the society. The values which are accommodated by religious structures also contribute to the formation of cultural diversity through creating different beliefs, symbolic narratives and rituals in different cultural groups. In particular, the cults that are shaped around natural elements and established on the basis of divinity form part of this diversity. The concept of a cult extends beyond intellectual acceptance of a belief system; it also encompasses the transformation of beliefs into behaviors through rituals and practices. Furthermore, this concept involves the acquisition of a symbolic language through narratives, primarily “myth” (Dilek 2020). Therefore, it is possible to say that cult consist of three fundamental, interrelated structures: “belief,” “ritual” and “narrative.” The level of belief refers to the entities, designs and concepts to which sacredness is attributed. Through the ritual dimension, on the other hand, the sacredness at the conceptual level is brought to life through concrete behaviors and practices. The narrative aspect, which is intertwined with these dimensions, conveys beliefs and rituals through a symbolic, allegorical and mythological language; in this way, it forms the “verbal” part of belief and practice. Within this theoretical framework, the tree cult emerges as a cultural structure where the dimensions of belief, ritual and narrative are intertwined, in which the relationship between nature and the sacred becomes visible.

In the process of transitioning from one belief system to another (for instance, the transition period from Tengrism to Islam), although the main structures of the previous system are abandoned over the course of time, mythological and symbolic elements may survive in different forms. One such element is the divine tree motif, which has a central place not only in Turkish culture but also in various world mythologies (Ergun 2012, pp. 6–8). The divine tree motif, with its varying meanings in different periods, has maintained traces in literary and mythological texts as a strong symbol which lives in the cultural subconscious of many communities.

Myths are divine stories which describe how the divine or supernatural beings created the world and the elements included in it at the onset of the time. Their main subject is always a process of creation, with the present order of the universe and the existential characteristics of the human described by the interventions of these beings (Eliade 1993, p. 13). Myths are the mental responses of the human to fundamental questions about creation and existence. In this regard, they are the belief templates pertaining to the essence of the moral life. While they do not have a formal structure, they function as a template for narrative forms such as legends, epics and tales. Myths, which are as old as human history, have continued existing as the initial form of the cultural narrative (Ergun 2012, p. 13). According to Campbell, a myth is defined as the “foundation of life, a timeless scheme” (Campbell 1992, p. 27). The continuous repetition of this first form leads myths to become elements which establish an order and ensure their continuity. In other words, a myth is a divine narrative which causes us to experience the first truth again, thus securing the social–religious order. It leads to the formation of beliefs and reinforces ethical principles, guaranteeing the validity of rituals and legitimizing the rules to be observed in primitive communities (Malinowski 1955, pp. 101–8). Thanks to these functions, the divinity and binding nature of rituals are preserved over generations. The existence of the divine tree belief has continued in this system, with the tree continuing to exist as an element which is still respected thanks to its roles in myths. It is conferred a certain immunity, due to assumed potential sanctions to be implemented in the case of violation of the rules established according to the beliefs surrounding it.

We encounter the tree cult in religions of various forms in different belief systems. In Islam, for example, trees such as olive, fig, pomegranate and grape are mentioned in the Holy Quran, appearing as not only divine but also metaphorical elements. The tree is used as a matter of lesson, and is represented with special symbols such as “Tûbâ tree”1 (Tree of Life) in descriptions of heaven; the belief that the tree is to be prostrated and the miracles of the Prophet Mohammad relating to the tree are living examples of this cult. In Christianity, the symbol of the world tree is interpreted and extended while, in Judaism, the tree figure exists in holy texts. Manicheism and Buddhism ascribe important meanings to trees as well. In the Buddhist–Burkhan belief which was adopted by the Turks, the tree is considered a divine axis which connects three worlds (underworld, earth and sky) to each other, without disconnecting from the general Turkish idea. The tree signifies the space in which the miracles of Heaven occur, having some extraordinary attributes in the forest in general (Ergun 2012).

In world cultures, trees with many different functions and meanings appear. As the Cosmic Tree, it signifies the axis of the world; namely, “Axis Mundi,”2 in the form of the World Tree and the Tree of Life. At the same time, it is considered a tool for establishing communication with God. In ritualistic practices, it undertakes functions such as dismissing demons and devil spirits, directing natural occurrences (i.e., preventing sunrise, causing or stopping the wind from blowing, preventing or putting an end to lunar eclipses, causing rainfall). Trees also play a central role in the healing ceremonies (such as the removal of infertility), burial rituals and seasonal celebrations for the purpose of increasing abundance. In mythological contexts, they take part in mythical narratives and legends, which could be considered as a means of their continuance. The tree cult, while taking shape as an entity to which sacredness is attributed at the level of cosmic conceptions, has also been reflected in daily life through rituals and practice. In addition, the tree symbol has been used extensively throughout history—from architecture to handicrafts, from literature to theatrical performances—as an artistic element (Ergun 2012).

This symbolic structure, which exists in different forms in world cultures and religious belief systems, constitutes the foundation of the divine position which is acquired by the tree of life at the cosmic and cultural scales. The concept of the tree of life is one of the oldest symbols in human history. The tree exists at the center of the world and extends to the sky with its branches while grasping the earth with its roots. Thus, it has the feature of belonging not only to the earth but also the sky. The blossoming of its leaves from its dried branches again and again, and the maturation of its fruits in cycles every year are perceived as a concrete manifestation of the force of life, influencing humans throughout their history. For these reasons, the tree became the symbol of everything beneficial and good in many cultures. Likewise, in the Holy Quran, this symbolic meaning is reinforced by comparing a nice word with a beautiful tree (Schimmel 2004, pp. 39–40).

The tree of life is considered a cosmic axis which represents the center of the world in many cultures. However, in Turkish culture, it not only represents this center but also exemplifies the concept of the dynasty and the continuity of the government. In mythological narratives, it is depicted as the source of the founder khan lineage and is considered the pole of the sky which connects the earth and sky to each other. In addition, it is regarded as one of the symbols which establishes a divine connection between God and humans (Ergun 2012, pp. 185–246). This motif—which is mentioned with names such as World Tree, Cosmic Tree, Axis Mundi and Tree of Life—appears in a wide area extending from mythological narratives to rituals, as a universal cultural code which represents the connection between nature, the human and the divine.

Some aspects of tree worship provide examples of where belief, ritual, and narrative are inseparable, with these three dimensions necessarily processed simultaneously. It can be said that trees have become the symbol of the root consciousness of communities apart from the cosmic order. The belief that the tree is the source of existence is an element that is frequently mentioned in root myths (Roux 2005, p. 342). The legends and myths with the theme of “reproduction from tree,” as seen in Turkish communities, could be considered a reflection of the forest culture with roots extending to prehistoric periods. Similarly, the forest cult also exists on the basis of the concepts of the Cosmic Tree, World Tree and Tree of Life. The forest cult is a component of nature cults which, together with natural elements such as mountains and rivers, is taken up as part of the Earth–Water belief3 corresponding to the sky principle in the Turkish cosmology. The ceremonies relating to sacrifices presented to the earth spirits are among the concrete representations of this understanding. In the tradition of some Turkish tribes, a tree is planted in an area which is intended to be purified from evil spirits, after which a sheep is buried in the ground as a sacrifice (Çoruhlu 2022, p. 180). Such rituals indicate that the divine tree motif is not only a mythological element but also a living belief practice which assumes protective and purification functions while regulating the relationships between societies and nature.

Another symbolic function of the tree is to represent the concept of lineage. A genealogical tree is a well-rooted concept which represents the past, current and future generations of a family. According to Ergun, in a mythological sense, the tree represents ancestors with its roots, the living generation with its body and the future with its branches. There is the idea of a genealogical tree for every community, where the vividness of the tree represents the continuance of a lineage, while its drying or falling represents the end of the lineage. This connection that is established between humans and trees in Turkish culture comes into prominence as an important symbol beginning from the creation myths (Ergun 2012, pp. 306–307), and the concept of lineage in Turkish culture is foundational for social organization and a sense of belonging. This connection, which is established between the vividness of the tree and the continuance of a lineage, strengthens the idea of continuity in cultural memory.

One of the social and spatial functions of the tree is to signify the unity of a nomadic group and the divinity of their settlement place. Turks maintained a divine tree, which is believed to have “divine grace” (“kut”), in each region of settlement. As it is believed that the divine grace of God brings abundance, prosperity, peace and order, it was traditional to prefer places with old trees when choosing new lands to settle. The tree of the nomad group or the province had to exist in intact places which were difficult to reach and also overlooking the region in question (Ergun 2012, p. 364). This practice was quite important as a concrete indicator, reflecting not only the attribution of divinity to the new place of settlement but also reinforcing the communal identity and unity.

The tree which is generally considered to be integrated with good and beneficial qualities is also used as a “symbol of state.” The tree which signifies the eternity of the state in Turkish culture appears as a significant expression of divine grace, which reflects the state’s ideal features such as being powerful and permanent (Yıldız Altın 2025, p. 129). The tree, associated with the concepts of divine grace, state and homeland in ancient Turkish belief systems, is considered a symbol of dynastic lineage, integrity of the homeland and soundness of the state. From the accession and new homeland acquisition rituals in the epics, the tree is considered an element which reinforces the cosmic connection between God and the ruler (Yıldız Altın 2025, pp. 131–34). This situation informs the fact that the divine tree motif is a permanent cultural code which feeds not only the mythological inheritance of the past but also social identity and political legitimacy.

Encountering trees in which the branches have some pieces of cloth in various regions of Anatolia is a concrete reflection of folk beliefs. This practice facilitates the continuance of offering and wishing practices which appeal to the spirits of the ancestors, as in ancient Turkish belief systems. Following the adoption of Islam, the abovementioned belief merged with the cult of saints and holy men, thus gaining a new form. In this regard, it continued to survive in the forms of putting pieces of cloth on trees surrounding ancestor and saint tombs, visiting such places and making offerings (Korkmaz 2003, p. 108). Not only can such a practice be adopted in the context of different religious concepts by adopting the pre-Islam roots of the divine tree motif; its continuation in this manner also indicates that it continues to exist in cultural memory.

The tree, which is both a concrete and abstract indicator of the connection between nature and divinity, has become an important symbolic structure, varying in meaning in various world mythologies and belief systems. Not only do we encounter this structure in rituals, beliefs and practices, but it is also used as an important symbol in narratives. The tree has shifted beyond a symbol which takes part only in mythical narratives and traditional narrative forms (e.g., legends and tales) which cover the post-mythical period; in this way, it can be found to exists in post-1980 Turkish texts in different forms.

3. The Tree Cult in the Post-1980 Turkish Literature

In this section, literary works by nine different authors are examined thematically. It is studied how the tree cult took part in these literary texts with respect to different aspects and the variable aspects of the literature–mythology relationship are made visible through this single motif. These works are not entirely texts built upon the tree cult; they are literary works that incorporate the tree cult to varying degrees, utilizing it within their narrative world.

3.1. The Wish Tree: Belief, Desire, and Sacred Mediation

Sacred trees, regarded as signs of God on earth, function as mediating entities through which human wishes, desires, and expectations are directed toward the divine. Fundamental aspirations—such as having children, reunion, healing, fertility, and protection—are oriented toward trees deemed sacred and are made visible through practices such as votive offerings, the tying of cloth strips, and blood or bloodless sacrifices. In this context, the Wish Tree can be understood as a cultural formation that endows individual desires with meaning within a sacred framework and establishes a symbolic point of contact between humans and the divine. Although grounded in belief, the practices surrounding the Wish Tree take ritual form, allowing faith to be expressed through concrete actions. Wishes addressed to sacred trees are embodied in acts such as vows, cloth-tying, and sacrifice, thereby becoming socially shared patterns of behavior. In this respect, the Wish Tree constitutes a liminal space in which belief is materialized through ritual and sustained as part of cultural continuity.

Mahmud ile Yezida, which is the first book of the play series titled Mungan’s Mezapotamya Üçlemesi [Mesopotamian Trilogy], centers on the love between two young persons of two Muslim and Yezidi hostile villages. The Wish Tree, which witnessed this love, takes part as an important symbol and location in the narrative in question. Divine trees, which are considered signs of God on earth, are trees to which the people make various wishes (e.g., for reunion, having a child or healing) and present sacrifices (with or without blood) and make offerings. This divine tree, which is mentioned as the Wish Tree in the first book of the play series, is described as the tree “which could not lift its branches due to the cloth patches” (Mungan 2024, p. 11). This tree is the place at which Mahmud and Yezida come together and is also the tree to which Yezida presents her wishes to meet her love. In this regard, it plays the role of a tool for expressing wishes as well as prayers for reunion; in particular, Yezida puts forty cloth patches on the Wish Tree in order to meet Mahmud again. The Wish Tree is also the place where they promised to each other that they would come together. They come to an agreement that the person who is ready to escape should be prepared to leave a sign by putting a green cloth patch on the Wish Tree. When Mahmud puts the green cloth patch on the Wish Tree, he is seen by the Yezidi people. The hand which he used to put the cloth patch is then cut off, and becomes a border for the Yezid village. Thereafter, he is shot and murdered at bottom of the Wish Tree. Yezida draws a death circle surrounding the Wish Tree following the death of Mahmud and imprisons herself there; namely, to the death (Mungan 2024). The play starts with a scene at the bottom of the Wish Tree and ends at the same place.

In Mahmud ile Yezida [Mahmud and Yezida], the Wish Tree is in the position of the center in which fate is knotted. Two lovers meet at the bottom of this tree, make their wishes and make their plans for rescue there. Eventually, their death also occurs at the bottom of this tree. The fact that the tree is the place of not only the beginning but also the final scene could be interpreted in line with the function of being the Axis Mundi which is attributed to the tree; namely, the function of being at the center or to create the center. The tree with the role of the Wish Tree, which is the axis of the universe and the center of the life and death circle, is in the central position in the play. At the same time, the scene of putting cloth patches on the tree and emphasizing this function particularly in the description of the tree signifies the practice usually known in Turkish folk beliefs. The fact that Yezida puts forty cloth patches and Mahmud puts green cloth patches on the tree draws attention not only to the divinity of the number “forty,” which is considered important in the Turkish mythology and belief system,4 but also to the mythological meanings of the color green.5 The tree, which is deemed as a source of life in general in Turkish mythology, presents a hope of reunion based on its function in the play as well. At the same time, the death of Mahmud and tying of Yezida to the tree with the death circle brings the tree into a position signifying the border of life and death. The Wish Tree could be considered a symbol which not only brings together but also separates two different belief communities.

Taziye [Condolence], which is the second play of the trilogy and was first published in 1982, is the other text in which the Wish Tree takes part. However, in this play, the Wish Tree is a symbol which is seen in the context of the wish–sacrifice association only. In Taziye [Condolence], which takes up the subject of traditions in the frame of the love between Bedirhan Ağa and Fasla Kadın, Bedirhan Ağa kidnaps the daughter of the other tribe chief with whom he has a feud from the wedding ceremony and then marries with the girl himself. This event is converted into a love marriage in the course of time. Kevsa Ana—mother of Bedirhan Ağa, who is not satisfied with this situation—puts cloth patches on the Wish Tree in order to prevent Fasla Kadın from having a child, almost begging at the bottom of the tree. However, this wish does not come true (Mungan 2019). In the Turkish folk belief, it is a general practice for married couples to wish to have a child by putting cloth patches and making vows to trees which are considered divine. In addition, taking into consideration the functions of the tree as reflecting the continuity of human lineages and even the roots of the human being, it is quite understandable that this wish of Kevsa Ana would not come true. While the role of the tree is to be a tool in accepting a wish made for the purpose of continuing the lineage in a positive meaning, making a contrary wish provides a sufficient reason for not accepting this wish. In other words, wishing infertility from the tree which is considered the source of fertility is not appropriate in the mythological framework. For this reason, declining the wish appropriately draws a border for the function of the tree, as defined not only in mythological narratives but also belief systems.

In Mahmud ile Yezida and Taziye, the Wish Tree functions as a symbolic center in which individual desires are endowed with meaning within a sacred framework. In both texts, characters express fundamental human expectations—such as love, reunion, and the continuation of lineage—not through direct appeals to God, but through the mediation of a tree invested with sacred significance. This narrative strategy transforms belief into ritualized behavior, rendering it concrete and visible within the narrative. In Taziye, the failure of the wish directed toward the Wish Tree—due to its conflict with the principles of the sacred order—demonstrates that the tree functions not only as a medium for conveying desires but also as a symbolic threshold that regulates which wishes are considered legitimate. The Wish Tree thus ceases to be merely an object of belief and becomes a mediating space where individual hopes, social values, and relationships with the sacred intersect. In this respect, both texts illustrate how traditional conceptions of sacredness are reproduced and transformed within modern narrative frameworks.

3.2. The Forest: A Space of Escape, Refuge, and Transformation

In mythological and cultural narratives, the forest is represented as a liminal space that extends beyond the boundaries of everyday life, opens onto the unknown, and enables the possibility of transformation. Positioned in opposition to the settled social order, this space offers both an opportunity for escape and a site of confrontation. In literary texts, the forest assumes a powerful symbolic function as the setting of an inner journey through which individuals reestablish relationships with the self, the past, and nature, and through which pain, loss, and trauma may be reworked. The forest motif can thus be understood as a spatial construction informed by the belief-based and ritual dimensions of the tree cult, while primarily acquiring its function on the narrative plane.

In Geyikler Lanetler [Deer Curses], the final play in Murathan Mungan’s Mezapotamya Üçlemesi [Mesopotamian Trilogy], the forest—composed of numerous trees—is addressed alongside the symbolism of the deer. Hazer Bey makes his decision to settle down. For this purpose, he chooses a forest which is home to the deer and decides to construct a pavilion there. His wish was to create a settled life for his own tribe; however, this wish is cursed by the ghost of his father, as it is contrary to the traditions and wishes of the father. Hazer Bey and his wife Kureyşa, who live in a tent in the forest until the completion of the pavilion, are scared of the deer howls coming from all sides of the forest. In addition, Hazer Bey shoots a female deer, in accordance with his traditions, and protects her blood in a bowl to take the poison from the land which they homestead in this manner. For the aforementioned reasons, Kureyşa believes that their family is cursed by the deer. As a consequence of this curse, the couple could not have a child and their lineage ends. She wants to drink the poisoned blood and die in order to invalidate the curse; however, she does not die when she drinks it—to the contrary, she becomes pregnant with their son. When their son Mustafa reaches the age of fifteen, he goes for his first hunt with his father; however, he becomes lost in the forest and falls in love with a deer that he sees. Kureyşa and Hazer Bey then go to visit magicians in order to turn the deer that their son loves into a woman; thereafter, Cudana (who turns from deer into a woman) and Mustafa are married. Cudana and Mustafa have twins, and they go for hunting with their father when they reach the age fifteen. During the hunt, the children think that their father is a deer by mistake and kill him, then bring his head to the newly constructed pavilion as a hunt trophy. Thus, the everlasting curse begins (Mungan 2022).

In “Geyikler Lanetler” [Deer Curses], the forest is an important place. This place signifies chaos in the Turkish mythology. While a single tree signifies the oneness of God, the forest—which is composed of many trees—is considered symbolic of chaos, plurality and, consequently, evil. The forest is a “cursed” place of evil spirits (Ergun 2010, p. 113). The deer motif is used together with forest due to the complementary mythological meanings of deer and trees. At the same time, the deer—which is considered a female spirit and goddess—became the symbol of the earth and sky (Genç 2023, p. 15). In this manner, deer—which are associated with fertility, guidance and natural spirits in the mythological tradition—come into prominence not only with the taboo violation (shooting the female deer) but also with motifs of transformation/disguise (as the deer that Mustafa fell in love with was turned into a woman). Shooting the female deer is an offense committed against the spirit of nature, and saving the blood becomes the action which activates the curse. In the play, the forest and deer together represent the nature cult and ancestral traditions. The curse, which is pronounced through such symbols, reflects the opinion that behaviors which are against the natural order threaten the continuance of one’s lineage. At the same time, it is also possible to interpret, from the playscript, that entering into a place which is considered cursed in the mythological context initiates chaos; consequently, this situation puts an end to human life in the cosmos.

Latife Tekin, a prominent figure in Turkish literature for her novels, situates the Forest as the primary setting in her work Ormanda Ölüm Yokmuş [There Was No Death in the Forest]. The book focuses on the journeys that Emin and Yasemin, two close friends, undertake into the Forest. Emin, who is a painter, is cheated by his lover; while Yasemin, who writes stories, is shattered by the suicide of her lover. These two friends, who have something in common with regard to their pains but also some differences with regard to their character, try to relieve their pains by making journeys to the deep forest. Likewise, the forest signifies the rescuer in the novel (Sönmez 2023, p. 249). In the Turkish mythology, in contrast to a single tree, the forest is used as an expression of evil and chaos: the forest, which is considered the land of the evil spirits, is symbolic of an area which is left by God, and only holy men can decode the ciphers of the forest (Ergun 2010, p. 113). In this regard, the forest walks of Emin and Yasemin express their inner reckonings. The situation that the protagonists have some issues to be solved in their inner worlds is defined with the usage of forest, which is considered a place in which the secrets should be released. Emin takes shelter in the forest with the pain to be away from his lover, with Yasemin accompanying him in this inner journey of reckoning with his past. The story is shaped surrounding the forest walks of Emin and Yasemin to a considerable extent. They share their own pains, dreams and love in the form of long dialogs. This journey, which is hosted by the forest, becomes deeper and richer with the inclusion of the trees, clouds, winds and leaves.

One day while walking in the forest, Emin finds a pink green and very thin leaf in the form of tulip (Tekin 2023, p. 28). Emin, who thinks that it is a leaf of the tulip tree, then always looks for the tulip tree in the forest and includes Yasemin in this quest.6 This quest indicates a never-ending journey as, throughout the novel, it is dwelled upon the quest rather than how to find the tulip tree. This situation is also reflected in the dialogs between Emin and Yasemin. Emin, who raises a strict opposition against the offer to ask the forest watchmen the place of the tulip tree, then comes to say “we find it if we find it, I am looking for it for nothing, I am just lingering myself, all right?” (Tekin 2023, p. 72). During another walk, Emin reacts to the reproach of Yasemin as “then we are only looking for it but you don’t want to find it, it is nonsense!” by saying that “I didn’t say I don’t want to find it but I am saying that it is okay even if we can’t find it” (Tekin 2023, p. 86). Emin’s sentence “I am saying that it is okay even if we can’t find it” is an expression of the transformation journey of the protagonist; that is, it is not reaching any specific point, but only the process of the quest that is important. Emin, who experiences a problem of alienation on account of his past experiences, takes shelter in his own loneliness and in the silence of the forest. He extends his quest and stays away from the illuminated streets and roads of the city in this manner. With such an attitude, Emin feels more peaceful among the trees, of which he says “at least they don’t make noise and my ears find peace” (Tekin 2023, p. 96). In this regard, while the novel describes the emotional and mental problems of the human caused by urban life, it also emphasizes the inevitable requirement to establish a relationship and harmony with nature.

No tulip tree is found in the forest throughout the novel. The tulip tree that Emin is looking for appears as his younger self during another walk in the forest. Emin could not even realize that it is his own young age version. As a matter of fact, the tulip tree is a symbol, and it can be said that the tulip tree becomes evident by appearing in human form. This situation is related to the belief that the tree has a spirit. According to this belief, which exists in many cultures, it is assumed that trees which are alive should also have a spirit. The tree is considered the body and sometimes home of the spirit, and the tree serves as the means for transformation of the spirit into the human body (Frazer 1993, pp. 111–14). The dialogs between Emin and Yasemin in the novel also support the idea that trees have spirits. Yasemin mentions that trees do not transform the sunlight in order to give us life, as we think, but they need it to stay alive (Tekin 2023, p. 121). Emin feels restlessness because he thinks that he is being watched by the trees while he is walking (Tekin 2023, p. 124). On another day, Emin tells Yasemin that some trees do not grow tall and even do not give fruits unless the females and males are planted next to each other (Tekin 2023, p. 131). The appearance of the tree in the form of a human also matches with the fact that the tree cult has andromorphic7 lines (Alizade 2012, p. 48). All of these details indicate the background of the symbolic quest for the tulip tree, supporting the opinion that a tree is a creature with a spirit.

The forest also appears in “Cennet Kaçkınları” (Paradise Runners), a short story included in Bu An’ı Daha Önce Yaşamıştım [I have experienced this moment before] by the novelist and short story writer Murat Gülsoy. The narrator protagonist in the story, which is in the limits of a fantastic work with regard to the characters, place and time, is a person who lives in a heaven for a long period of time and does not know and does not care where he came from. The mentioned place is a place which is surrounded by the sea, forest and mountains in which everything has a mild temperature, the people do not need anything, the human relations do not have any passion and the people take pleasure of the time. The narrator protagonist, who has become used to everything except for the drink he has, spends the entire day by collecting a sufficient quantity of fruits, swimming and then resting in his hut (Gülsoy 2004, pp. 115–16).

One day, the narrator protagonist requests the glass master to prepare underwater goggles for him to see the bottom of the sea. With the goggles, he dives into the sea and is fascinated with the colors and fishes there. Afterwards, he goes to the rocks in the sea—the idea of underwater goggles came to his mind because he was curious about the rocks in the sea. The narrator protagonist then dives into the mild sea and swims towards the rocks while nobody is awake in the early morning. The heaven, which also continues in the bottom of the sea, ends in the rocks which extend from the mountains to the sea. The narrator protagonist realizes that the water in the bottom of the sea is cooler and this current comes from another place outside the heaven (Gülsoy 2004, pp. 118–19).

The narrator protagonist, who is curious about the things behind the mountain, is drawn to the attraction of the cool water. He recovers himself with the cool water which he encountered for the first time in his entire lifetime and, whenever he disembarks, he witnesses a death case. Afterwards, he finds his lover and asks her where they bury the dead people. Then, his lover responds that “We don’t bury anybody but they go on their own” (Gülsoy 2004, p. 120) and, when they go walking in the deep forest, she shows the truth. The narrator protagonist learns that nobody dies but only transforms there. The person who feels that it is time to go finds a suitable place and then digs a hole with their hands to accommodate their legs in the humid soil, enters the hole, opens their arms to each side and starts to wait. After several hours, the feet are turned into roots, the arms are turned into branches and they are turned into a fruiting tree. Ensuring the continuity of existence in a new form describes a human becoming immortal as a consequence of merging with nature. Consequently, the transformation into a tree enables us to locate the tree motif at the center as a representation of rebirth.

The narrator protagonist takes his lover to the rocks. Both of them are curious about the things behind the rocks. They have pickaxes, shovels made by the iron masters and try to reach behind the mountain. Upon the last pickax blow smoke with bad smell comes from the hole which is opened, and they run away. The next day, they call the other people living in the heaven to there. The narrator protagonist and his lover enlarge the hole which is ready to be opened with the pickaxe in their hands, and are fascinated by the attraction of the bizarre air behind the rocks and the wind, and they drift inside. They pass together to the complicated, bad and horrifying world behind the rocks. Thereupon, the narrator protagonist realizes that the scenes of expelling from the paradise in the holy texts and in mythology are related, that they lost the paradise in the quest for freedom and now they must make efforts in order to return there (Gülsoy 2004, pp. 122–23).

The story of “Cennet Kaçkınları” [Paradise Runners] is a parody of the Adam and Eve narrative, as mentioned in the Holy Bible and the Holy Quran. According to the Holy Bible, God prepares a garden called Aden and then puts Adam, whom he created to there. He also creates Eve as a wife for Adam. There are various trees with nice fruits in the realm of Aden. God prohibits Adam from eating from the tree for knowing the good and the bad which is called “Knowledge Tree.” However, after being deceived by the snake, which is the most cunning animal, Adam and Eve eat the forbidden fruit and commit the first sin, and are then expelled from Aden (Holy Bible 2002, pp. 2–5). On the other hand, according to the Holy Quran, Adam and Eve are reduced from heaven to Earth because they ate the fruit of the forbidden tree upon the deception of the Devil (Holy Quran 2011). The narrator protagonist is a representative of Adam and his lover is a representative of Eve in the story of “Cennet Kaçkınları” [Paradise Runners]. While Adam and Eve are expelled from the heaven because they had eaten the forbidden fruit, the protagonists of the story experience the same end because they drilled the rocks in the mountains (Akyıldız 2015, pp. 22–23).

The place which is described as heaven in the story of “Cennet Kaçkınları” [Paradise Runners] is between the sea and the forest. There are mysterious trees which give juicy and sour fruits in the forest (Gülsoy 2004, p. 116). These fruit trees are formed whenever a person digs a hole in the soil, enters inside and lets their legs become roots when the time for death comes. Not only are all of the fruit trees different from each other, but each fruit is also different from one another. Besides, it is not possible to limit and name the fruits because new fruits are being formed every day. This feature seen in the fruit trees and in the fruits signifies immortality. On the other hand, these trees and fruits bring to mind the fruiting trees and their various fruits in the garden of Aden (Holy Bible 2002, pp. 2–5).

In Geyikler Lanetler, Ormanda Ölüm Yokmuş, and “Cennet Kaçkınları,” the forest does not appear merely as a natural setting. Rather, it is constructed as a symbolic liminal space in which individuals and communities confront one another, are tested by inner conflicts, and ultimately undergo transformation. In Geyikler Lanetler, the forest becomes the site of a curse resulting from an intervention in custom and the sacred order. By contrast, in Latife Tekin’s novel, it functions as a silent witness to individual suffering, alienation, and the search for meaning. In Murat Gülsoy’s narrative, the forest emerges as a transitional space—a boundary between paradise and the world—where the loss of innocence accompanies the human desire for knowledge. Across all three texts, the forest is configured not simply as a refuge from everyday life but as a space of transformation in which characters confront themselves, their pasts, and their existential concerns. In this respect, the forest appears in modern narratives as a multilayered symbolic structure through which sacred and mythic space is reinterpreted, and within which escape, confrontation, and processes of reconstruction are intricately intertwined.

3.3. The Tree as a Symbol of the Cycle of Life and Transformation

The tree is one of the fundamental symbols representing the continuity and cyclical nature of life through its structure, rooted in the earth and extending toward the sky through its trunk and branches. Its seasonal cycles of withering and renewal give concrete form to the notions of birth, death, and rebirth. In this respect, the tree functions as a powerful narrative element that renders visible individual and collective processes of transformation, encompassing time, change, and continuity. As a symbol of life cycles and transformation, the tree draws on beliefs surrounding death and rebirth while primarily acquiring meaning through its narrative representations of individual and social change.

In Pınar Kür’s short story “Bir Deli Ağaç” [A Crazy Tree], the tree emerges as a significant motif through which the narrator draws an analogy to herself. The tree is used as a simile, which the narrator watches every morning and makes a connection between the tree and herself, then transfers her own experiences of maidenhood. She describes her falling in love with an older man in her maidenhood period and the “crazy” things which she did for that man through the mentioned simile, by characterizing the tree—which is the main subject of this simile—as crazy. By saying “I know the tree. I am closely related with the tree” (Kür 2024, p. 91), Kür identifies her own internal journey with the seasonal cycle of the tree. In this way, she emphasizes the change experienced by humans over the course of time and makes the human journey more concrete by connecting each phase of the human life and the changes in the physical appearance of the tree throughout the winter, summer, spring and autumn seasons. In this way, she deals with her own past as well. As a consequence of this reckoning, she expresses that the tree with which she establishes a concrete connection went crazy. At this point, she points to her own self and mood.

Not only does the tree signify the life cycle in the mythological tradition, it is also used as a symbol of the life cycle, growing up and transformation at the individual level in the story of Kür. Reducing the tree to the individual level in this story can be connected with its role as a micro-cosmos of the human. The terms micro- and macro-cosmos, which have been claimed to first be used by Democritus, emphasize the similarity between the cosmos and the human. In Sufi considerations, a human should know themself in order to know and understand the universe, and one should even look at themself in order to reach God in the end. Consequently, the human is contemplated as a reflection of a greater universe, with their ego and spirit. This understanding, which considers the human as a reflection of all of beings in the universe, is also quite functional in terms of the relationship of the human with the cosmos and the beings inside it (Özbakır 2025, pp. 63–77). In the context of this understanding, in the story of Pınar Kür, the tree is turned into a narrative tool in which the micro-cosmic nature of the human is embodied into the tree motif. As the protagonist of the story describes the cycle she experienced by identifying herself with the tree, it is possible to interpret it as extending to the past with its roots and to the future with its body and branches, showing that the human experiences the mentioned cycle in the connection established with the consciousness, body and spirit. Whenever the internal conflict of the narrator is given in correlation with the tree, it is taken up as a sort of internal rebirth, reminding us of the tree motif usually encountered in mythological narratives. The tree motif, which passes from a collective function to an individual identity, transfers the existence of the human in the story in question. In this manner, the tree is no longer only a natural element: now, it is expressed as a mythological reflection of the individual self, youth, various crazy things which are fulfilled in the young ages and the internal transformation.

While the tree symbolizes an individual transformation in Pınar Kür’s short story “Bir Deli Ağaç,” it functions as a symbol of social transformation in Sevinç Çokum’s “Bir Ağacın Dilinden” [From the Language of a Tree]. In the last years of the Ottoman Empire, a calligraphist who has a sick wife and three daughters finds a tree sapling while walking on the streets of Istanbul. After maintaining the sapling which he took out from the earth in a jar for a time, he plants it in the garden of his mansion. The tree, as the narrator, witnesses the daily life of the household. The sick wife of the calligraphist dies and his daughters are married and leave the mansion. Upon the death of his wife and leaving of his daughters, the calligraphist does not want to live in the mansion alone any longer and rents it out. In the process of the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the crowded household of the mansion fights with poverty. In this period as the first years of the Republic of Turkey, the calligraphist who is the owner of the mansion dies as well. The daughters of the calligraphist sell the mansion which is inherited from their father to a baker called Mehmet Ağa. Mehmet Ağa cooks the breads of the neighborhood and raises the first children of the Republic. A soccer player named Ali, who becomes famous throughout the country in the 1950s, grows up in this mansion as well. Over the course of time, the gambling and alcohol habits of Ali cause him to lose his fame and material assets. One morning the owner of the mansion, Mehmet Ağa, cuts the tree to give more space for the sunlight to the house. Most of the branches of this tree are burned in his furnace. Only one branch among them becomes the walking stick of Bedi Bey, a retired rich man, and has the opportunity to walk through Istanbul with him. One day, with Bedri Bey, it passes by the mansion in which it was planted as a sapling. No sign of it is left here, and the construction of an apartment has already started on the land. The tree, which continues its life as a walking stick, waits for visitors in the dark and dusty corner of a junk dealer shop following the death of Bedri Bey (Çokum 1993, pp. 17–23).

In the story titled “Bir Ağacın Dilinden” [From the Language of a Tree], the tree is used as a narrator by the author. Lifeless objects and animals are in the position of narrator in this kind of text, which are called “circulation novels” and became widespread in England in the 18th century. Consequently, they narrate the stories of the places they visited and the people they encountered. Tolstoy’s story “Hulstomer,” in which the narrator is a horse, is one of the most famous stories of this type (Kumsar 2021, pp. 699–707). Plants and animals have increasingly been used as narrators with the increased interest in ecocriticism in Turkish literature of the recent period (Uçan Eke 2023, p. 130). An example of this is the story “Bir Ağacın Dilinden” [From the Language of a Tree] written by Sevinç Çokum. The tree narrates the people encountered in this story. It is the spectator/witness of a period, extending from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic of Turkey, that could not speak, criticize or react. The story documents the social change which occurred in the Turkish social life from the period of Abdelhamid II, II. The constitutional period and the spring of the Republic to the 1950s is presented, as witnessed by the tree.

In the story, the tree represents the cycle of human life, the passage of time, and the breaking of the connection between the past and the present. The function of the tree, which acts as the witness of a period, also changes as a result of the changes in its life cycle. In the story, the sapling and young ages of the tree correspond to the Ottoman period and its maturity, while its old age and cutting period correspond to the Republic years. The living difference in the tree between the Ottoman and Republic periods enables the author to show and criticize the changes in social life. For example, in the Ottoman period, the tree is appreciated by the mansion owners and its shadows provide a place for recreation. On the other hand, the human model which represents the Ottoman period is an artist who works on calligraphy. In the Republic period, the tree is almost a redundancy for human life and, as such, it is cut down because it prevents sunlight from entering the mansion. The author present the people of this period complete with their negative characteristics: the daughters sold the mansion in which they all grew up upon the death of the calligraphist, taking the objects they believed to be valuable while leaving the calligraphies and illuminated paintings of their father while evacuating the mansion; meanwhile Ali, who was a famous soccer player in the 1950s, lost his health and material assets due to his gambling and alcohol habits. These characters are presented as the human models of the Republic period. Therefore, the tree that protects a nest is eventually transformed into a walking stick: just as humans are born and die, the Tree of Life symbolizes death and rebirth. The author, who shows the social change in the Turkish nation through the tree, also attributes a symbolic meaning to the tree. Likewise, the tree represents the continuity of the state tradition and cultural memory in the Central Asian Turkish States, Seljukian and Ottoman periods, and in the Republic of Turkey (Yıldız Altın 2025, p. 134). From this point of view, it is possible to interpret the divinity of the tree as the symbol of continuity of the state. The tree, which is considered a reflection of the divine grace of God on Earth, is the expression of life and rebirth. In a similar manner, Sevinç Çokum represents the Turkish nation with the tree as a symbol, the roots of which date back to the Ottoman Empire and now continue to live in the Republic of Turkey in her story. Although she showed the change by means of the human models presented, she drew attention to a state tradition and the cultural memory transferred from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic period.

In the mythological tradition, the tree represents the cycle of life; in Nazan Bekiroğlu’s novel Nar Ağacı (Pomegranate Tree), it acquires a representational function grounded in family and nation.

The subject of this novel is the loves of Settarhan who is a young man from Tabriz; the changed lives of Zehra, a young girl from Trabzon, and her family due to the Balkan War; and the intersection of their paths. The tree motif appears already in the name of this novel. A pomegranate tree is found in the garden of the family house of Zehra. Büyükhanım, who is the grandmother of Zehra, sees in her dreams that the pomegranate tree is burning in flames in the night of the day in which they had to immigrate from their homeland, due to the announcement of Balkan War mobilization and the extension of the war up to Trabzon province. Büyükhanım, who sees that the pomegranate tree which is ready to bourgeon with the water in its veins in March seasonally, interprets this dream as a sign of a difficult journey which they will have. When they return to their home upon the salvation of Trabzon, they see that the pomegranate tree in their garden is axed in half, and the house is no longer that house which they have left. Büyükhanım feels that the tree nearly cried while cutting as she looks at the pomegranate tree, which has a deep ax cut. However, when they look at the tree carefully, she realizes that the thin branches which have come out of the roots of the tree have already leaved and blossomed. Thus, spring has already come to their homeland and their house (Bekiroğlu 2025).

The pomegranate tree, which is one of the trees mentioned in the Holy Quran and considered to be divine, are part of the description of the four heavens mentioned in the Holy Quran (Ergun 2012, pp. 107–11). According to Ergun, the pomegranate tree is an important motif which also represents the house (p. 247): it is planted thinking that it is a sentimental tree before laying the foundations of the house in the Turkish world view (p. 299), is planted in front of the houses because it is believed that it has a protective nature (p. 374) and is also considered a symbol of reproduction (p. 430). In line with such mythological and religious meanings of pomegranate, it can be said that it is also used in the novel as the symbol of abundance, rebirth and resistance. Having a pomegranate tree in the garden of the house is compatible with the Turkish world view. Axing this tree concretely reflects the destruction caused by the war and immigration, the deaths and losses experienced. The return of Zehra and her family to their homeland, to their house and then re-sprouting of the life is indicated by associating them with the symbolic nature of pomegranate. At the same time, seeing a burning tree in a dream is mentioned, with the scene of contacting the tree—considered a divine spirit—with another natural but destructive element (i.e., fire) symbolizing the approaching disaster. In all of these processes, the pomegranate tree becomes a concrete expression of death/destruction and the cycle of rebirth.

The pomegranate tree is taken up in the novel as a representation of resistance of not only the family but also the nation. The events encountered by nature are a specific reflection of what happens to the family, which could be considered the smallest group of the nation. The pains and incidents experienced by the family are symbolized first by seeing the burning and cutting of the pomegranate tree in a dream. The return of the family to their house and the salvation of the nation are then reflected through the sprouting of the pomegranate tree again. In this regard, it is also possible that the pomegranate tree is taken up in the frame of representation of homeland as the roots of the tree. At the same time, it is a story of not only individual but also national resistance, and all of the transformations which are experienced in this process can also be read through the pomegranate tree.

In “Bir Deli Ağaç,” “Bir Ağacın Dilinden,” and Nar Ağacı, the tree is constructed as a powerful metaphor that reflecting the temporal and spiritual journey of human life. In Pınar Kür’s story, the tree becomes a mirror of individual memory and inner transformation, while in Sevinç Çokum’s narrative, it functions as a living site of memory bearing witness to social change. In Nazan Bekiroğlu’s novel, the pomegranate tree emerges as a symbol of life and resilience, reappearing amid destruction and loss. Across all three examples, the tree appears not merely as a biological entity but as a holistic life symbol representing human processes of birth, growth, rupture, death, and rebirth. In this context, the tree motif functions in modern Turkish literature as a fundamental narrative device that carries individual and collective memory, renders existential continuity visible, and articulates human fragility in relation to time.

3.4. The Tree as a Representation of the Sacred and a Form of Aesthetic Mediation

In certain texts, the tree appears not as a sacred being that directly represents the relationship between God and humanity, but rather as a symbolic mediator that enables this relationship to be articulated through art and narrative. Especially in narratives concerned with questions of representation, visibility, and meaning, the tree functions as an aesthetic metaphor reflecting the distance between divine truth and the human gaze. In this context, the tree is not a material embodiment of the sacred but a component of the interpretive process through which the holy is understood and rendered meaningful. The chapter entitled “I Am a Tree” in Orhan Pamuk’s novel Benim Adım Kırmızı [My Name Is Red] provides a significant example that makes the aesthetic dimension of this symbolic mediation visible.

Benim Adım Kırmızı [My Name is Red], which is the historical novel of the Nobel-winner author Orhan Pamuk, was first published in 1998. In the novel, the seeing and perception styles of the East and the West are described by mixing a detective story and the art of painting. Pamuk mentions the differences in various points of view between the works of the Eastern miniaturists and Western painters in consideration of the contrast between these works. This multi-layered novel, which is formed by means of intellectual and artistic sources, leaves the mystery involving two murders unsolved until the end.

The novel is composed of 59 chapters. The narrator of each chapter is also the protagonist of that chapter and narrates the events according to his/her point of view. The author gives a feeling of reality and mentions with direct speech that he expresses his story from the mouths of many narrators in order to give rise to the illusion of being “there, in that place” for the readers (Pamuk 2015, p. 514). As one of the main questions in the novel, each object in the novel exhibits his/her contradictory opinions freely and in a democratic manner. Benim Adım Kırmızı [My Name is Red] is the product of the pluralistic structure of the postmodern literature, with its carnival of embedded contrasts (Ecevit 2001, p. 132).

There are 20 different narrators in the novel, with not only human but also non-human creatures appearing as narrators. For instance, there are some non-human creatures that express themselves to us through a public storyteller in a coffee house which is frequently visited by the calligraphists and miniaturists in the last years of the 16th century. The readers listen to the creatures like the horse, tree and dog that are painted and hanged in a high place and are able to speak through the public storyteller or other concepts, such as death and red. These objects and concepts become subjects. Everybody speaks from the language of “I” and then talks about himself/herself, his/her lives and events. An equality is created between the objects and concepts, which are identified with the human (Seval 2015, p. 180).

The 10th chapter of the novel has the title “I am a Tree” (Pamuk 2015, pp. 62–66). The first outstanding characteristic of the tree is that it appears in front of us as the object narrator. We listen to the story from the tree just like we look at the novel from the eyes of the different narrators in its other chapters.

One of the essential questions of the novel is the perception of reality and its correlation with paintings. The author argues which is real and to what extent it will be illustrated through the arts of miniature and painting. The different perception methods of the Western and Eastern artists and the transformation of these perceptions into art are questioned. While there is a close correlation between the Western understanding of painting and reality, there are only small-sized descriptions in the miniature art which is specific to the Eastern world. The tree that is narrator of the 10th chapter also expresses its gratitude, as it is described with an Eastern mindset:

“And finally, I want to talk about the Frank miniaturists so that any infidel person who may aspire them would take a lesson easily. Now the Frank miniaturists are describing the faces of the kings, priests, misters and even ladies in such a way that, if you look at the picture, and then you can easily recognize this person on the street. (…) But I, as the painting of a tree, thank God because I am not described in such mentality.”.

(Pamuk 2015, p. 66)

Tree, which is one of the non-human narrators in the novel, thanks God because it is not described as a real tree and, thus, is not to be a part of “this sin.” The tree ends the chapter in which it acts as a narrator with the sentence “I don’t want to be the tree itself, but only the meaning of the tree” (Pamuk 2015, p. 66). The Turkish–Islamic arts such as miniature, calligraphy, architecture and music advance on a line from abstract to concrete. The divine is to be reached by means of worldly materials, and the divine is always praised in these arts which are the products of the Turkish–Islamic civilization. There is a quest for meaning beyond the material in these arts; contemplation and truth are considered important in the Islamic arts. The last sentence of the tree also points out to this esthetic system, in which the divine gains meaning. The tree, which establishes a connection between God and the human in a mythological way, is considered not only a description but also a being which exists with its meaning. Here, the tree which acts as a narrator also becomes a representation of the respect shown for divine beauty and meaning.

In Benim Adım Kırmızı, the tree is constructed as a symbolic mediator that establishes the relationship between God and humanity on an aesthetic and intellectual plane. Positioned as an object-narrator, it transcends its material existence and articulates a desire for meaning, thereby representing the aesthetic sensibility of Islamic art, which moves from the concrete to the abstract. This narrative mode, which rejects the direct imitation of reality, aligns with the view that the sacred cannot be represented directly. In this respect, the tree in Pamuk’s novel emerges as a central narrative element demonstrating how the human relationship with the divine is constructed through an indirect, symbolic, and aesthetic mode.

3.5. The Tree of Life: Cosmic Center and Continuity

In world mythologies and Turkish culture, the Tree of Life is regarded as a cosmic structure symbolizing the center of the universe. As an axis connecting the underworld, the earthly realm, and the sky, it represents the beginning, continuity, and end of existence. The Tree of Life encompasses a broad field of meaning, symbolically expressing the continuity not only of individual life but also of lineage, statehood, and cosmic order. Rather than emerging primarily through ritual practice, the Tree of Life appears as a celestial model of belief oriented toward making sense of existence. Through narrative traditions, it is endowed with a symbolic language and thereby sustained within cultural memory.

İhsan Oktay Anar is a novel and story author who produced postmodern works in the Turkish literature after the year 1990. His first novel, which was published in 1995, is Puslu Kıtalar Atlası [The Atlas of Misty Continents]. This novel tells the story of Bünyamin, who discovers a world which is fictionalized in the dreams of Uzun İhsan Efendi, who produces a world atlas without ever visiting and seeing such places. The novel is the parody of the hypothesis “I think, therefore, I am” of Descartes. By saying “I dream, therefore, I am” (Anar 2006, p. 45) instead, Uzun İhsan Efendi gives a clue of the mentioned parody. Another parody element in the novel is the world map of Piri Reis. Just like Piri Reis, Uzun İhsan Efendi also tries to prepare a world map (Anar 2006, p. 20). Considering both of the aforementioned parody elements, the postmodern attitude of the novel becomes clear: historicity is one of the primary characteristics of postmodern novels, and postmodern authors write about the history not with the concern to teach/explain historical information, but to reinterpret history and to present it from different points of view. This attitude enables the reader to question the official historical information which is generally told to them. Consequently, İhsan Oktay Anar teases scientific history by making Uzun İhsan Efendi tell that he is dreaming, thus damaging the reliability of the map of Piri Reis and enabling us to question the official historical information which has been transferred from the past to the present.

The tree motif, as mentioned in the novel Puslu Kıtalar Atlası [The Atlas of Misty Continents], appears with Bünyamin who goes for an adventurous journey with reference to the map of Uzun İhsan Efendi. Bünyamin starts to work as a driller with Vardapet who is a soldier in the Ottoman army. Because he was assumed dead and buried, but was then able to reach the ground again in good health after his burial, he is considered one of the best men for drilling works (Anar 2006, pp. 48–51). Bünyamin starts to work in the Ottoman army together with Vardapet and the mentioned duty is to excavate a tunnel in order to rescue a spy named Zülfiyar who is kept as a prisoner in a castle. Vardapet and Bünyamin go underground with difficulty. Whenever they go underground, they encounter some human and animal dead bodies, as a parody of Noah’s ark: “There was an immense vessel the woods of which are already rotten under the stalactites and above the stalagmites and whenever they entered inside, they were scared of them because they saw the skeletons of various animals as one male and one female from each of them” (Anar 2006, p. 84). In the next scene, there is a description of hell, as indicated by the dead people who suffer from the punishment of the grave. Bünyamin succeeds to reach the surface by holding onto a tree, as the place in which the hell description exists. The fact that the Bünyamin travels from the underground to the surface through a tree brings the Cosmic Tree belief to mind. The idea that tree unifies the underground, surface and the sky is expressed in the novel, in that it is possible to successfully exit hell only by holding onto a tree, thus passing from death to existence and from darkness to the light. The object which is assumed to be the full moon by Bünyamin, who climbs into the sky by holding onto a tree, is the only fruit of the mentioned tree. Bünyamin approaches this fruit with an unbearable desire, takes a bite from the fruit and then tastes all of the pains and torments of history in this little bite (Anar 2006 pp. 85–86).

The tree that Bünyamin holds in his journey from underground to surface and then into the sky reminds us of the tree of life which is encountered in various mythologies and legends. Likewise, Bünyamin learns the deep meanings of life such as pain, joy, goodness and badness by holding on the roots of the tree. Afterwards, he tastes the fruit which signifies the essence and core of life by reaching the highest point of the tree (Karaca 2005; Temizer and Baş 2021, p. 261). In addition to this, there is a parody of the forbidden fruit mentioned in the Holy Bible (2002, pp. 2–5) and the Holy Quran (2011). Just like Adam, who is warned by God, Bünyamin ate the forbidden fruit due to his own weakness. However, while Adam is expelled from the heaven as a punishment and sent to Earth, Bünyamin goes from Earth to the underground (Sarı 2009, pp. 33–66; Özdemir 2013, p. 175). By the reference made to the forbidden fruit narrative of Adam, a mythical rebirth scene is reanimated in the context of knowledge, pain and humanity.

In Puslu Kıtalar Atlası, the Tree of Life is depicted as an axis at the center of the cosmic order linking the underworld, the earthly realm, and the sky. Bünyamin’s act of clinging to the tree during his ascent from the underworld to the world above is directly associated with the tree’s role as the axis mundi in mythological tradition. The identification of the tree’s fruit with knowledge and pain, in turn, symbolizes the human process of attaining existential awareness. In this respect, the Tree of Life in the novel emerges as a central narrative structure that functions both as a spatial site of transition and as a means of articulating humanity’s place within the cosmic order, its desire for knowledge, and the idea of continuity.

3.6. The Walnut Tree as a Parody of the Sacred

In modern literary narratives, the motif of the sacred tree is sometimes detached from its traditional field of meaning and reconfigured in a parodic mode. The walnut tree, traditionally associated with wisdom, power, and truth, becomes a vehicle for questioning and inverting myth within such narratives. In this way, the tree functions as a narrative device that foregrounds not the absoluteness of the sacred but the modern individual’s distanced and ironic relationship with myth.

In Puslu Kıtalar Atlası [The Atlas of Misty Continents], there is another parody element regarding the walnut tree. The event which causes the burial of Bünyamin due to assumption that he is dead is that he drinks the sleeping syrup prepared by his father, Uzun İhsan Efendi, and then falls asleep. Bünyamin is then buried by means of a funeral ceremony and, when the green sleeping syrup loses its influence, he becomes able to escape to the surface and reach his house, then eats the halvah which is prepared for him. Uzun İhsan Efendi, who is upset for causing such an accident, pours the green sleeping syrup onto the bottom of the walnut tree in the courtyard of their house. The next year, the people living in the neighborhood learn that the children who eat the walnuts of this tree give up misbehaviors and t also stop waking up and crying during the night. Afterwards, the fame of this tree becomes widespread throughout Istanbul, and it is cut in accordance with the order of the sultan with the fear that it will cause a sleepy generation instead of a brave one (Anar 2006, p. 51).

The walnut tree appears with its strong body and nourishing fruit. In this respect, it is like a human body: the walnut fruit is similar to the human head and is associated with wisdom. In Sufism, it signifies the truth and the way to reach the truth (O. Aydın 2024, p. 860). The final purpose is to break the shell and to reach the core. In other words, it represents reaching the truth from the material world. The layers which have to be broken and peeled until the interior part of the shell is reached signify the human’s journey to reach the truth and the obstacles encountered during this journey. Consequently, the fact that Uzun İhsan Efendi pours the syrup which is used for its sleeping and narcotizing effects onto the bottom of the walnut tree, which is associated with soundness and good health, is another parody made by the author. This tree, which is considered a vehicle to reach the divine and the truth, now causes sleep. This parody represents the transformation in the values attributed to the journey of reaching the truth to the readers through the example of a walnut tree.

The example of the walnut tree in Puslu Kıtalar Atlası is particularly striking in that it demonstrates how a symbol traditionally associated with the sacred and with wisdom is inverted within a modern narrative. The association of the walnut tree—long regarded as a symbol of truth, consciousness, and inner awakening—with drowsiness and passivity reveals how the sacred is transformed into an ironic narrative element. This parodic construction makes visible the modern individual’s distanced relationship to mythological and religious symbols, indicating that the sacred has ceased to function as an absolute reference and has instead become a structure that is questioned, reinterpreted, and even functionally reversed.

3.7. The Tree as a Mediating Agent Between Nature and Humanity

The tree constitutes one of the symbolic centers of the relationship between humanity and nature. Perceived as a living being endowed with spirit and sharing characteristics similar to those of humans, it functions as a mediator within this relationship. In literary texts, the tree operates as a threshold representing the human search for harmony, conflict, and reintegration with nature, while also serving as a carrier of ethical, ecological, and existential concerns. Constructed as a mediating element between nature and humanity, the tree is fundamentally grounded in belief about the sacred and the natural world. These beliefs are reproduced on a symbolic and aesthetic plane through narrative representation.

Hasan Ali Toptaş, who usually makes use of postmodern narrative techniques in his works, is one of the leading authors of novels and stories in the contemporary Turkish literature. Ben Bir Gürgen Dalıyım [I Am A Hornbeam Branch] is the first and only child’s novel of Hasan Ali Toptaş, which was first published in 1997. It tells the story of trees that are living on a small plain behind the Beşparmak Mountains, and a hornbeam which becomes green and matures there. The novel, which starts with the expression “I was a very young hornbeam in the Aegean land” (Toptaş 2023, p. 7), is narrated by the hornbeam from beginning to the end. In this manner, the tree is placed as a symbol of life at the center of the relationship between nature and human. The accompanying side characters include the oaks and firs, and then the pines, junipers, spruces, chestnuts, other trees, flowers and winds, which are mentioned as “neighbors” by the hornbeam.

When the fir tree is cut by illegal foresters, the hornbeam suddenly realizes that it will also be cut someday. While it is waiting with the dream that it will be turned into an esthetic object if it appears to be a beautiful tree, it is cut off one day and finds itself in a woodshop. While the tree is a symbol of life in mythological narratives, it is seen as a creature which is at danger of extinction in the narrative of Toptaş. In this manner, the consideration of the tree as a divine object indicates that the relationship between humans and nature has reached a stage of destruction following the mythical period; that is, there is a transformation in the importance which is attributed to tree. Due to the debts of the carpenter and his family, it is directly sold to the military together with its neighbors in the woodshop without any sort of processing. The hornbeam is processed there and then converted into a hanging tree. Whenever they hang a young culprit on it, it could not stand this shame. It decides to decay and destroy itself, as it is compelled to have a painful life by the people (Toptaş 2023).

The hornbeam, which witnesses many pains, closely sees how nature is destroyed by humans and tries to determine the reasons for this conflict in its own way. It is mentioned in the book that the human being is unable to see the beauty in nature, they are reckless and destroy it. The author sends the message to the readers that it is necessary to be much more sensitive towards nature (F. Aydın 2020, p. 68). Likewise, humans feature with malicious characteristics in the novel, and are described with the negative definitions. The big and burly men enter into the forest with their coal-black mustaches, their tangled hair racking in the wind and their blurred sights dispersed to the right and left sides. Those “men with hangman faces” put their axes on the trees and then take them “by dragging just like they are lifeless and insensitive things” without any mercy (Toptaş 2023, p. 49). The human is described as a merciless creature that massacres and whom the trees are scared. It can be said that the author chooses this description in order to improve environmental awareness and to infuse love for nature. At the same time, it is further emphasized that the balance between the human and the tree, which represents cosmic order, has already been destroyed.

Another matter which is elaborated in the novel is that trees are living creatures; in other words, the fact that the narrator is a tree means that it is positioned as a conscious creature. Furthermore, this is not only ensured by means of conversations of the trees. The trees think, feel pain, have nightmares and scream while cutting takes place in the book. The hornbeam which is the narrator of the novel expresses that, “just like humans, we were also feeling pain, we got upset from time to time, we also cried sometimes, just like humans, we got worried, we thought and we feared in some cases” (Toptaş 2023, pp. 9–10), justifying the opinion that trees are also creatures with spirits. The tree, which is one of the creatures with spirits in the Turkish mythology, becomes a symbol of death but not life in the narrative of Topbaş. This situation can further be interpreted as a criticism of the gradually disconnected relationship between humanity and the cosmos.

In Hasan Ali Toptaş’s Ben Bir Gürgen Dalıyım, the tree serves as a narrator positioned at the boundary between humanity and nature. Through the hornbeam’s narration of its own existence, fears, and destruction, the novel reveals that nature is not merely a backdrop but a subject exposed to human intervention. In this respect, the tree functions as a witness that renders visible humanity’s dominion over nature and serves as a vehicle for moral inquiry. By anthropomorphizing the tree, the narrative emphasizes that the human–nature relationship is not based on unilateral use but constitutes a domain of mutual responsibility. Thus, the tree emerges as both a threshold and a moral mediator between humanity and nature.

4. Conclusions

In this study, the presence of the tree cult was examined in selected literary works in the post-1980 Turkish literature published by nine different authors. We encounter the tree motif in different forms, in compliance with its roles in mythical narratives and divine beliefs. Modern/postmodern authors, who turn to religions, beliefs and mythological elements existing in daily life, include and use the tree cult as a motif in their works. The tree sometimes appears only in a certain chapter of a work, and sometimes not only appears in the title of the work but also at the center of the narrative. This conforms to the tree’s nature of representing the axis of the cosmos (Axis Mundi). From another perspective, the tree is depicted in these texts in a manner shaped around the three fundamental elements that constitute the cult. In the texts, the tree motif appears both as an element of belief and as a ritual representation, such as the Wish Tree. The selected texts contain examples reflecting the belief that forms the basis of the ritual, as well as expressions where we directly see concrete behaviors. These embodied rituals transform into a symbolic form of expression within the texts, thus also drawing from the narrative aspect of the tree cult.

The Wish Tree, which is the place for reunion of the protagonists in the first play of the Mezapotamya Üçlemesi [Mesopotamian Trilogy], takes a place at the center of the narrative. The tree becomes prominent, with its representation of the axis of the cosmos. In the first and second plays of the trilogy, the Wish Tree plays the symbolic roles of giving hope and fulfilling desires. The novel of Hasan Ali Toptaş is a tree-centered narrative, in which the tree is located at the center of the relationship between nature and humanity as a symbol of life. The quest and journey are fictionized on the basis of the tulip tree in the narrative of Latife Tekin. Consequently, the tree cult is at the center in Tekin’s narrative as well.

The tree cult is a sign of life cycle, growth and transformation; examples of which were determined in the examined works. A similarity was established between the change which occurs in the tree throughout the seasons and the inner journey of the human who observes it in the story “Bir Deli Ağaç” [A Crazy Tree], written by Pınar Kür. The cycle of the human life and the passing of time are symbolized through the adventure of the tree in the story titled “Bir Ağacın Dilinden” [From the Language of a Tree] written by Sevinç Çokum, in which the tree is also representative of the continuity of cultural memory. There is a pomegranate tree in the garden of the house in the novel written by Nazan Bekiroğlu. The tree is a symbol of abundance and resistance in the novel, as well as an expression of the cycle of death and rebirth. While the transformation into trees implies rebirth in the story written by Murat Gülsoy, the features of the fruit trees and their fruits symbolize immortality.

One of the most outstanding characteristics of the tree cult is the symbolic connection between the earth and sky. The tree on which the protagonist holds in his adventure in the novel of İhsan Oktay Anar extends from the underground into the sky, corresponding to the tree of life or cosmic tree belief encountered in various mythologies and legends. According to this belief, which is encountered in many cultures, trees are creatures with spirits. This belief, which is also held in Turkish mythology, is mentioned in the selected novels and stories. The idea that trees are also alive and have spirits is taken up in the narrative of Hasan Ali Toptaş. The fact that the quest for the tulip tree in the forest, as performed by the protagonist in the novel of Latife Tekin, concludes by finding his own younger self is another example which justifies the belief that trees have spirits, with the sought-after tulip tree finally appearing in human form.

The forest cult appears by gathering more than one tree. In Turkish mythology, the forest serves as an expression of evil and chaos, in contrast to a single tree, and the forest is considered a place of evil spirits. The forest, which is composed of a collection of many trees in the third play of the Mezapotamya Üçlemesi [Mesopotamian Trilogy], is a place of evil spirits which is considered cursed. It also appears as a place which symbolizes rescue in the novel titled Ormanda Ölüm Yokmuş [There Was No Death in The Forest], written by Latife Tekin.

Another characteristic of the trees seen in the fictional texts is their feature as an object narrator. The tree that is the narrator in the story titled “Bir Ağacın Dilinden” [From the Language of a Tree] written by Sevinç Çokum witnesses the daily life of a household, and we follow the story through the eyes of the tree. The novel of Hasan Ali Toptaş is another work in which we encounter the tree as an object narrator: the novel is told by a hornbeam tree from beginning to end. We encounter the tree in only one chapter of the novel of Orhan Pamuk which is composed of fifty-nine chapters, in which it also appears as an object narrator. Here, the tree is also deemed a creature which makes a connection between the divine and the human in mythological meaning, serving as a representation of the respect towards divine beauty and meaning.

The prominent use of the tree motif in post-1980 Turkish literature is not merely the result of mythological continuity or aesthetic preference; rather, it reflects the identity fractures that have accompanied modernization, urbanization, and social transformation. In this period, as individuals seek to exist in a world marked by weakened ties to tradition, the withdrawal of the sacred from everyday life, and fragmented senses of belonging, the tree cult is reintroduced into narrative as a sphere of sanctity embedded in collective memory. While in some texts the tree retains its status as a center of absolute sacredness, in others it is transformed into a liminal space in which the sacred becomes fragile, undergoes transformation, or is critically questioned. In this respect, the tree functions in post-1980 Turkish literature as a symbolic site where lost senses of wholeness, fragmented identities, and relationships with the sacred are renegotiated. Therefore, rather than merely representing a cultural legacy inherited from the past, the tree motif operates as a living narrative medium through which the modern individual’s search for memory, identity, and meaning is articulated.

In this context, the texts examined in this study demonstrates that the tree motif does not operate within a singular or static field of meaning; rather, it functions as a symbol that proliferates, transforms, and at times produces mutually contradictory meanings across different narratives. The preservation of sacredness in representations of the Wish Tree, alongside its interrogation in parodic narratives, underscores the motif’s semantic flexibility. Likewise, while forest narratives configure the tree as a space of refuge or escape, transformation narratives portray it with the function of an existential metaphor. Taken together, this multilayered use may be understood as an aesthetic strategy through which post-1980 Turkish literature reflects the fragmented meaning-world of the modern individual and the persistent ambiguity shaping their relationship with the sacred. Consequently, the tree motif emerges not merely as a cultural remnant inherited from the past but as a dynamic narrative element positioned at the center of contemporary literary inquiry into memory, identity, nature, and ethical responsibility.

The works which are carried out on the tree cult point to the fact that this mythological element, which has religious foundations, still continues to exist and maintains importance. This article also indicates that the tree cult survives by means of certain transformations in modern narrative forms. This study focused on different authors and different literary genres in order to increase its reliability. With it, we make a contribution to the literature on religion and mythology-oriented works, enabling us to view the different aspects of mythology through a single motif.