Catholicity and Catholicism in Avery Dulles (S.J.)’s Ecumenical Ecclesiology

Abstract

Avery Dulles, in The Catholicity of the Church, conceptualizes catholicity in terms of its vertical dimension and its horizontal dimension, articulating the principles necessary to preserve catholicity in ecumenical contexts. His work redefines the relationship between catholicity and Catholicism. In Models of the Church, Dulles integrates these two aspects through a dual ecclesiological model: the Church as Sacrament and as Community of Disciples. His ecclesiology enables the Church to engage with the secular society through concrete discipleship and public witness. Dulles’s vision, when expanded through Moltmann’s insights, offers a compelling theological model for contemporary ecumenism. Transcending mere doctrinal convergence, this model fosters a united Christian witness against secular atheism. This integrated approach advances a renewed understanding of ecclesial identity, rooted in discipleship, sacramentality, and social responsibility.

1. Introduction

In contemporary discussions on ecclesial identity and ecumenism, Avery Dulles’s dual understanding of catholicity and Catholicism offers a critical framework for theological reflection. This study employs a literature-based theological methodology, situated within the disciplines of systematic theology and ecumenical ecclesiology, to explore these insights. Its primary object of analysis is Avery Dulles’s The Catholicity of the Church (Dulles 1985a), which provides the central framework for examining his integrated concept of catholicity—comprising a vertical dimension, representing grace descending from God, and a horizontal dimension, reflecting the human response and the Church’s historical mission. The study also examines the principles needed to maintain catholicity in ecumenical settings, including unity in diversity, the logic of both/and, the Catholic principle of visible mediation, and the Protestant principle as a standard of critique, thereby redefining the relationship between catholicity and Catholicism. Notably, in Models of the Church (Dulles 2014), Dulles synthesizes these two dimensions through a dual ecclesiological model: the Church as Sacrament and the Church as a Community of Disciples.

This integrative vision not only moves beyond traditional Catholic ecclesiology but also offers theological resources for harmonizing diverse ecclesial understandings across Christian traditions. In particular, it examines how the Church model—both as a sacramental sign and a community of disciples—can be reinterpreted to address contemporary challenges such as secularism, pluralism, and ecological crisis. This work is interpreted in relation to Dulles’s broader theological corpus—especially Models of the Church—with particular attention given to its sacramental, pneumatological, and missionary dimensions.

The selection of texts follows two main criteria. First, the chosen texts must clearly explain the theological structure and function of catholicity within ecclesiology. Second, they must be directly relevant to current ecumenical discussions. Using this framework, the study examines how Dulles redefines the relationship between catholicity and Catholicism through principles such as visible mediation and critical discernment, and how he maintains doctrinal continuity while considering the context.

Additionally, a supplementary yet essential comparative framework is provided by engaging with the theology of Jürgen Moltmann. Moltmann’s ideas of creative discipleship, social responsibility, and the liberating mission of the Holy Spirit are examined to draw constructive contrasts with Dulles’s ecclesiology. This contrast is not oppositional but dialectical—aimed at revealing complementary theological perspectives on the Church’s identity and mission.

This methodological approach aims to provide a balanced and appreciative reading of both Catholic and Protestant traditions. It is rooted in a broader pneumatological and eschatological vision of the Church. Instead of seeking doctrinal harmony, the study focuses on how these distinct theological perspectives can collectively contribute to the development of a mission-driven and holistic ecumenical ecclesiology for the 21st century.

2. The Vertical Catholicity of the Church

According to Dulles, the Church possesses a vertical dimension of catholicity “from above” and “from below.” The reason it is called the catholicity “from above” is that the one Triune God communicates with creation from above through the Holy Spirit and through Jesus Christ, the head of the Church, which is also referred to as the “height of universality” (Dulles 1985a). Furthermore, human nature responds to the divine economy by engaging—through the Church—in the communion of the Triune God. This participatory aspect is called the “catholicity from below,” also described as the “depth” of catholicity (Dulles 1985a).

The principle of “diversified unity,” which characterizes the vertical dimension of the Church’s catholicity, flows from the very mode of existence of the Triune God. This principle is not one of “either/or,” but rather one of “both/and” (Dulles 1985a, 1987a). God is not “either” the one God of unity “or” the tri-personal God but “both” the one God in unity “and” the God in three distinct persons. According to Dulles, Jesus Christ, the universal head of all creation (Col 1: 15–17; 2: 10; Eph 1: 23; 4: 10), through His incarnation, realized the union of humanity and divinity—“a mystery of reconciled opposites.” The unity of “both” His divinity “and” His humanity, therefore, serves as the actualized source of the Church’s principle of “diversified unity” (Dulles 1982a, 1985a). Thus, the Church likewise achieves a unitive synthesis of “both” its institutional dimension and its charismatic dimension through the dynamic activity of the Holy Spirit dwelling within it (Dulles 1972a, 1982d, 1985a, 1999a, 2014).

In its vertical dimension, the Holy Spirit—descending from above—establishes the Church as a unique institution, yet at the same time calls every member through the bestowal of charisms “without violating or infringing on their freedom and personal distinctiveness” (Dulles 1985a, 1987a). The gifts of the Spirit that flow through the Church’s activity extend the presence of Christ to all peoples and every generation, thereby ensuring that the fruits of Christ’s saving work remain effective in the diverse historical contexts of the world (Dulles 1987a). Since the universality of salvation is both a gift and a mission (Dulles 1999c), the members of the Church are called to form the community of Jesus by sharing with one another the gifts they have received.

As St. Paul describes, this community is one of the Spirit, grounded in the principle of unity-in-diversity (e.g., 1 Cor 12: 11) (Dulles 1982a). Within the vertical dimension of catholicity, Dulles deepens the understanding of the Church’s catholicity in light of the Incarnation of Christ. He closely examines the Pauline connection between the “Body of Christ”—most clearly expressed through the Eucharist (e.g., 1 Cor 11: 24)—and the holy Church.

In this reflection on the community within the Body of Christ (e.g., 1 Cor 10: 17; 12: 28–31), Dulles emphasizes that just as the Divine Word became incarnate in perfect unity with Jesus Christ, the Spirit, dwelling within the Church as an institution, also fosters unity among the community’s diverse gifts (Dulles 1985a).

However, a theologically significant distinction—referred to as analogy—exists between the incarnation of the Word of God and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit within the Church (Lumen Gentium [LG] 8) (Second Vatican Council 1964b; Vitali 2012). Whereas the incarnate Word is a single divine person, the institutions, charisms, and members that constitute the Church do not form a single person (Dulles 1981a, 1985a).

Moreover, the Church, as a community of both saints and sinners, must progressively grow toward the holiness and fullness of Christ (e.g., Eph 4: 11–13, 16). Since Pentecost, the Church in this age exists both as an institution and as a community of diverse charisms and the Spirit, comprising both saints and sinners. In this form, it truly participates in the saving grace of Christ and shares in the universal fullness of divinity (e.g., Col 2: 9) (Dulles 1985a).

Thus, for Dulles, an ecclesiology of vertical catholicity necessarily includes a pneumatological principle of unity and sanctity (Dulles 1999c), and leads—on the horizontal plane—to the participation of all aspects of worldly life in the catholicity of salvation (Dulles 1987a). The Church can therefore be understood as the community where the mystery of Christ—the vertical dimension of divine salvific catholicity—is actualized. Simultaneously, it exists as the catholicity of the other, encompassing everything outside itself (e.g., 1 Cor 15: 28) (Dulles 1985a).

The universality of the Church’s holiness and unity can only be properly expressed within the vertical dimension that comes from above—namely, the divine self-communication through Christ and the Holy Spirit. However, this gift of communion from above does not ignore the ascending vertical dimension from below, which involves the human response to that divine initiative.

According to Dulles, the catholicity from below, which begins with human nature, signifies the personal or communal participation in the fullness of divine truth through grace. At the same time, it expresses the Church’s mission to unite all people in the communion of the Triune God. In particular, Dulles explains the depth of catholicity from an anthropological perspective, reflecting deeply on human justification and freedom, and their relation to the Church’s missionary vocation (Dulles 1984b).

Before reaching the “ultimate goal” that will be accomplished outside all historical processes, the Church has been entrusted with “several proximate goals” by Christ (Dulles 1988b). Among these proximal goals, the first is the fact that all people can attain sanctification (Sacrosanctum Concilium [SC] 10) (Second Vatican Council 1963). Although human freedom has been wounded by original sin (Gaudium et Spes [GS] 17) (Second Vatican Council 1965d), human nature still bears the image of God and is, in its very essence, oriented toward becoming God’s children through the grace of Christ and the power of the Holy Spirit (e.g., Rom 8: 21; Dignitatis Humanae [DH] 15) (Second Vatican Council 1965c).

Thus, Catholic theology of grace interprets human nature as having restored its original dignity through Christ, the new Adam (GS 22), and thus possessing an inherent tendency toward union with God (e.g., Eph 2: 11–22) (Dulles 1985a). However, despite the re-creation of existence through Christ, human nature still tends to sin because of human freedom (Dulles 1977c, 1982a, 1988b). The vision of catholicity affirms the dignity of human nature in its freedom, since acts of faith, repentance, and good works are not merely divine operations but theanthropic acts—free human actions influenced by the Holy Spirit (Dulles 1985a).

In pursuit of the sanctification of all humanity, the Church must extend its missionary mandate through the horizontal dimension of catholicity, reaching not only into social and cultural spheres but into all domains of the world. Therefore, the theological axiom “Outside the Church there is no salvation” (extra ecclesia nulla salus) is based on the optimism and realism of salvation, which come from the horizontal catholicity of grace (Dulles 1985a). This is because the Church, as the Mystical Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit, is the place where the human community can participate in the life of God’s people (LG 17).

Therefore, The Catholicity of the Church, in carrying out its missionary mandate, does not reject anything that is true and holy in the various religions (Nostra Aetate [NA] 2) (Second Vatican Council 1965e). For this reason, the Second Vatican Council asserts that even those who are ignorant of God, Christ, the Church, and the Gospel through no fault of their own are not excluded from salvation (GS 22; LG 16; Ad Gentes [AG] 7) (Dulles 1985a; Second Vatican Council 1965a). The Catholicity of the Church, while directing all created realities toward transformation within the Kingdom of God, does not divide the world in a dualistic manner; rather, it distinguishes between holy continuity and secular discontinuity.

3. The Horizontal Catholicity of the Church

The Catholicity of the Church exists within a dynamic relationship that embraces both the purity and impurity, holiness and sinfulness of the world within the communion with God (Dulles 1967, 1985a). This theology of catholicity involves expanding into the Church’s horizontal dimension, expressed through catholicity in breadth and catholicity in length (Dulles 1985a).

Catholicity in scope refers, first, to the universality of salvation as it results from the Church’s missionary mandate; second, to a quantitative universality that encompasses appropriate diversity within the ecclesial community.

Drawing on the thought of Paul VI and John Paul II (Dulles 1984a, 1988b, 1996, 1997, 1999b; John Paul II 1982), Dulles first examines the “evangelical theology” to which quantitative catholicity is oriented. This evangelical theology is a comprehensive concept that includes not only the proclamation of the Gospel but also the transformation of society and culture in line with the Gospel values of justice and peace (Carey 2010b).

Culture must be transformed within the Gospel, while, conversely, evangelization is a process that far surpasses individual cultures (AG 21) (Dulles 1988b; Carey 2011). Just as Christianity, in its evangelizing mission, underwent a process of inculturation in relation to diverse cultures according to the principle of the Incarnation, so too does the Church’s catholicity respect socio-cultural plurality while maintaining the unity of its missionary mandate of evangelization under the principle of “legitimate differences” (Dulles 1987a).

In particular, local churches in communion with the universal Church are the points where the principle of appropriate diversity within quantitative catholicity is most clearly expressed on a horizontal level. Each local community, while deeply rooted in the lives of the people it serves, can offer its unique contribution to the universal Church by staying open to correction and guidance from other communities (Dulles 1988b). In this way, the Catholicity of the complete Church must have a meaningful structure.

This system, as a framework of “healthy pluralism” (Massa S. J. 2007), is one that has been historically transmitted and incarnated within the symbols of the community, allowing its members to think, judge, and act in their own ways while preserving unity (LG 13; AG 22; GS 44; Unitatis Redintegratio [UR] 14–18) (Dulles 1985a, 1987b, 1988b; Second Vatican Council 1964a). However, the principle of catholicity does not justify uncritical acceptance of indiscriminate pluralism, nor does it support a tendency to impose uniform control over all differences. Instead, catholicity seeks not homogeneity but unity within diversity—a communion achieved amid difference (Dulles 1985a).

Catholicity, like the union of divinity from above and humanity from below in the person of Christ, must strive toward the reconciliation of “reconciled opposites” (Dulles 1985a, p. 33). As Dulles articulates, “Catholicity […] consists in a dynamic interplay of mutually opposed but complementary principles” (Massa S. J. 2007, p. 944). For example, Catholicity is “a paradoxical complexion oppositorum in which nature and grace, faith and reason, tradition and progress, word and sacrament, spirit and institution, cross and glory are brought into a dynamic synthesis” (Dulles 1984b, p. 84; 1988b, pp. 71–72). This integration is not the result of an exclusive choice, but rather takes the form of a dynamic synthesis according to the both/and principle.

This theological union of opposites constitutes what may be called the “Catholic via media” or “Catholic neutrality,” a creative tension that preserves continuity and discontinuity in dialectical balance. This functions as the Church’s mode of preserving essential truth while simultaneously embracing various challenges and changes throughout history.

Dulles also explores the continuity of catholicity in terms of its length, addressing three key ecumenical themes: the relationship between the Church’s historicity and its interpretation of Scripture and Tradition; the development of doctrine; and the Church’s eschatological mission. These themes are also connected to the past, present, and future of the Church, which is inevitably on a pilgrimage in the world (Dulles 1985a). To properly understand catholicity in terms of its scope, one must start with an accurate understanding of Tradition, which carries the historicity of the Church as it has been passed down from the past (Dulles 1992b, 1998b).

First, Tradition is not an end or goal in itself, but a means by which the Church, as a living community of believers, is drawn into a living relationship with God (Dei Verbum [DV] 8) (Second Vatican Council 1965b). Second, Tradition is not, in principle, merely a written deposit of words or truths; rather, it is a living reality communicated through the Church’s dynamic activity (DV 7.8). Third, Tradition is not simply preservative or static, but a dynamic process—one that is verified through the experiences, contemplation, prayer, and preaching of the bishops and the faithful (DV 8) (Dulles 1988b, 1992b).

In dialog with the Protestant theological tradition, Dulles reaffirms that Scripture alone cannot serve as the norm of faith apart from Tradition, especially when considering the historical nature of the Church. As Cardinal Newman observed, events of historical importance within Christianity require temporal reflection to be properly understood (Dulles 1980b, 1985a; Newman 1890). For this reason, the authority of Scripture is primarily rooted in the historical process of canonization, with the main criterion being how authentic tradition was used and accepted within the life of the Christian community (Dulles 1971, 1980b, 1982c).1

Building on this understanding of Tradition, Dulles shifts to the second major theme of catholicity at length: the historical development of doctrine (Dulles 1985a). He begins by discussing the development of doctrine within the universal framework of Catholic faith, raising important questions about the concept of universal doctrine as explained by the Neo-Scholastic tradition of the Middle Ages (Carey 2010b).

In light of the Reformation, Dulles questions whether the Neo-Scholastic view of doctrine—being static and immutable universality—must necessarily be the only basis for unified faith. Has the concept of catholicity, which means universality, been mistakenly confused with ideas of uniformity and immutability (Dulles 1985a)?

The different expressions of faith within various Christian communities, in fact, arose from distinct theological frameworks developed over different periods in history. The various expressions of faith that grew within these differing Christian lives reflect particular historical stages shaped by their unique temporal and cultural circumstances (Dulles 1977a, 1977c; Carey 2010b). Within this process of change, the infallibility of doctrine is preserved, for the development of doctrine—when continuously reconstituted within the primordial and essential relationship to Christ—becomes itself the ground of doctrinal infallibility (Dulles 1977c). In this context, the Church’s catholicity permits a legitimate pluralism of doctrine in accordance with the hierarchy of truths (UR 11) (Dulles 1994).

The doctrinal pluralism proposed by Dulles refers to a theology that reflects the dynamic development of doctrine in response to historical change and cultural context. He presents this pluralism as a foundational stage for ecumenical theology. Christian doctrines, while preserving the deposit of faith, enable all believers to express the transcendent reality they experience and inhabit.

Different Christian communities constantly develop new ways to express their beliefs to better understand the mystery of revelation through their lived religious experiences within the Church. These various expressions of faith, therefore, embody the meaning and purpose of Christian life (Dulles 1977b). Such variety in doctrinal formulation does not cause confusion among the faithful because the plurality of doctrinal expressions remains connected to the authority of the universal Church (Dulles 1971).

For Dulles, reflecting on the development of doctrine and the authority of the universal Church is essential and inseparable. The responsibility for doctrinal development and reformulation rests with the Church’s magisterium—those entrusted with preserving the core content of faith handed down through tradition and authoritatively interpreting Scripture and doctrine. Those who hold authority in the universal Church are called to be both guides and witnesses: preserving the essence of the faith while also providing interpretive pathways that help believers deepen their understanding of the Gospel and God’s will amid the changing realities of history and culture (Dulles 1981b).

The third key theme of catholicity, as outlined by Dulles, involves the Church’s eschatological mission—specifically, its continuous need for reform and renewal throughout its historical journey (Dulles 1985a). According to the Catholic view, it is a theological mistake for the Church on earth to see itself as already a fully united and holy universal community. Conversely, it is equally mistaken to claim that the Church’s fulfillment is only a future promise with no real basis or realization in the present (Dulles 1985a, 2014).

Dulles explains that the Church’s catholicity remains incomplete in this world, and that its full perfection will be realized only in the glory of heaven (LG 48). However, he also firmly states that the Church already shares—completely and uniquely—in the life of Christ here on earth (Dulles 1985b). Within this eschatological tension of the “already” and the “not yet,” both the individual life of the Christian and the communal structure of the Church are continually called to reform and renewal. The ongoing efforts of Christian churches and ecclesial communities toward reform and renewal—shaped by different historical paths and contextual conditions—show both their movement toward unity and their natural ability and potential to reach the fullness of God (Dulles 1985a, 2014; Congar 1952).

Within the framework of tradition, doctrinal development, and the Church’s eschatological mission, catholicity as it unfolds over time cannot be reduced to mere uniformity or homogeneity. Instead, catholicity has a dynamic nature: it seeks the fullness of truth while embracing both diverse heterogeneity and unity in the expression and practice of faith (Dulles 1985a, 1986, 1999c). In this process, the Church has an infallible calling to continually purify itself, walk the path of reform and renewal, and stay faithful to the Gospel (Dulles 1982d, 1985a).

4. The Sacramental Nature of the Church and Two Principles

According to Dulles, the continuity of catholicity throughout history is demonstrated through the Church’s sacramental nature. By this, he refers to the symbolic realities that express the unity of the particular churches scattered around the world on a horizontal level (Dulles 1980a, 1987a). In particular, the sacramental nature of the Church invokes two fundamental principles of catholicity: “the Catholic Principle” as a role of visible mediation and “the Protestant Principle” as a critical norm (Dulles 1965, 1985a).

The Catholic Principle as a form of visible mediation—also called the principle of Catholicism—is fundamentally linked to the event of Christ’s Incarnation, which is the highest point of God’s salvation work. In this context, Catholicism refers to the vertical and qualitative aspect of catholicity, which holds that catholicity, in its abstract form, must be concretized and actualized. That is, from above, God the Father has mediated and revealed the fullness of divine love to all humanity in a tangible way through the Incarnation of the Word in Jesus Christ. This event establishes the Catholic Principle of visible mediation.

The Church, as an organized body, necessarily requires the Catholic Principle of visible mediation for the realization of its identity and existence to fulfill the mission of the risen and ascended Christ. This principle, which runs throughout the entire history of the Church, means that the visible instruments of divine revelation—Scripture, doctrine, canon law, sacraments, and hierarchical order—have been formed to express the Church’s identity. These must be received in faith by the faithful as divinely instituted means (Benedetto XVI 2004, 2008, 2009).

These mediating instruments have been gradually developed throughout the Church’s history to proclaim the Gospel, safeguard orthodox doctrine from heresy, and preserve the deposit of faith. Therefore, they are not merely human constructs, but essential elements of the Church’s nature, necessary for the communication and preservation of divine revelation (Peter 1973). However, Catholicism must coexist with the spiritual, transcendent, and grace-filled aspects of catholicity, because the Holy Spirit—who acts universally throughout the world—far exceeds the institutional and legal boundaries of the Church (LG 8) (Dulles 1967, 1971).

When visible institutions within the ecclesial community are overly emphasized, they risk becoming ends in themselves, potentially degenerating into forms of idolatry. For this reason, the Protestant Principle—the principle of critique and self-reflection—is an essential element within the theology of catholicity.

This dynamic tension between institutional embodiment and critical protest is precisely what Paul Tillich articulates in his distinction between the Catholic substance and the Protestant principle, which provides a theological framework for holding together visible structures and ongoing self-critique within Christian ecclesiology. According to Tillich, the Catholic substance represents the embodiment of the Spiritual Presence through tangible expressions like holy persons, ecclesial institutions, the Word, and the sacraments. In contrast, the Protestant principle acts as a prophetic and critical standard, resisting any absolutization of these embodiments that would elevate them to divine status (Tillich 1963).

Contemporary Lutheran theologians, including Jaroslav Pelikan and George Lindbeck, have highlighted the ongoing importance of the Protestant principle. They contend that without its corrective role, Catholicism risks becoming rigid, superstitious, or even idolatrous. The Protestant principle, in this perspective, protects the Church from confusing finite historical expressions with the transcendent reality they are meant to signify (Dulles 1985a).

This principle helps ensure that the Church’s external structures and liturgical practices stay true to their original evangelical purpose and continue to more fully reflect the essential meaning of divine revelation. The history of the Catholic Church bears witness to periods in which the model of the Church as a “perfect society” was overemphasized. This led to clericalism, legalism, and a ritualistic liturgical piety focused more on the sacraments as magical rites than on their evangelical significance. In this light, the historical distortions of clericalism and triumphalism reveal not only past failures but also the ongoing need for the Church to hold together its Catholic substance and the Protestant principle of critique, so that its institutional forms may faithfully serve the Gospel amid contemporary challenges such as secularization and religious pluralism. The Church also fell into a triumphalist ecclesiology, treating the world primarily as an adversary and focusing excessively on consolidating its own institutional power.

Conversely, if the Church’s canon, ecclesial identity, hierarchical order, sacraments, canon law, doctrine, and principles of biblical interpretation—correctly established through Tradition since the early Church—are subjected to random criticism and deconstruction, the Church would be reduced to a fragmented and abstract collection of communities spread throughout the world (Dulles 1987a, 1987b, 1999c).

5. Catholicity and Catholicism: The Church as Sacrament and the Church as Community of Disciples

From the standpoint of “theological pluralism” (Carey 2010b, pp. 781–82), Dulles explores the Church from multiple perspectives as the integrative locus of both the Church’s horizontal catholicity and vertical Catholicism. In particular, he applies the methodological framework developed in his work Models of the Church, where he analyzes various ecclesial models, to his broader ecclesiological vision.

Dulles proposes six models of the Church: the Church as Institution, the Church as Mystical Communion, the Church as Sacrament, the Church as Herald of the Word, the Church as Servant, and the Church as a Community of Disciples (Dulles 2014).

His methodological approach highlights the complementarity and subsidiarity among these various models, aiming to prevent theological distortions that occur when one model is overemphasized at the exclusion of others. Nonetheless, Dulles emphasizes the models of the Church as Sacrament and as a Community of Disciples, thereby leaning toward an inclusive ecclesiology that unites the Church’s horizontal catholicity with its vertical and qualitative Catholicism.

Dulles does not regard the Church merely as an institutional community. Rather, he presents an ecclesiology of the Church as the primordial sacrament (Dulles 1968, 1972a, 1972b, 1977c, 1982d, 1988b, 1998a, 2000b, 2014; Burns 1974) in which the Church is understood as the visible presence of Jesus Christ and the concrete realization and symbolic mediation of God’s grace and salvation in the world (Dulles 1982a).2 Just as the fulfillment of human nature cannot be understood apart from reference to the incarnate Word, Jesus Christ, so too must grace be communicated in a form perceptible to humanity. In this sense, grace adopts the structure of the Incarnation—that is, a sacramental structure (Dulles 1980a, 1985a; Burns 1974).

From the vertical dimension of catholicity, the Church is understood as the symbolic structure of divine grace, rooted in Jesus Christ, who is the culmination and visible manifestation of God’s revelation. From the horizontal dimension, the Church mediates grace to humanity through the sacramental presence of Christ, descending from above (Rahner 1975). Therefore, the members of the Church are not only believers who participate in a sacramental life, but also witnesses to Christ’s love within society at large (Dulles 2014).

As Matthew 18:20 affirms, “Where two or three are gathered in my name, there am I in their midst of them” the presence of the Church is not confined to institutional structures or hierarchical authority, but extends to all spheres of life where the grace of the Holy Spirit is at work (Dulles 1984b, 2014). In this sense, all human beings may be considered anonymous Christians, participating in the life of the Church in diverse ways and at varying degrees (cf. GS 22; LG 16; AG 7) (Dulles 1967, 1988b, 1993a).3

According to Dulles, the Holy Spirit, who governs catholicity broadly, is a fundamental reality that exists before the institutional Church. This same Spirit, within the vertical dimension of Catholicism, calls all people into the event of Christ through the Church’s specific sacraments, which act as symbolic mediations of salvation. Through the Holy Spirit’s action, the Church becomes the living Body of Christ in history and a symbolic sign of universal love directed toward the world (Dulles 1972a, 1972b, 1982d, 2014). In this way, Dulles’s sacramental ecclesiology presents an integrated theological framework in which the visible institutional Church of Catholicism and the Church’s universal salvific mission, divine grace and human response, the Spirit and history, faith and practice are held together in a harmonious ecclesiological structure (Dulles 1968, 1985a, 2000a).

The model of the Church as a community of disciples offers a significant advantage for contemporary ecumenical ecclesiology because it includes all Christians who follow Jesus Christ and embrace the world with hospitality as members of the same community of disciples (Dulles 1982a, 2014; Massa 1998).

From the horizontal perspective of catholicity, to be a member of Christ’s Church—whether as a Catholic, a Protestant, or a believer from another Christian tradition—means more than just denominational membership. From the vertical perspective, it entails participation in the authority of Christ by belonging to Him as His disciple (Dulles 1989). This ecclesiological model also reflects the integration of the vertical and horizontal dimensions within the Catholic understanding of ecclesial ministry. In other words, the Catholicism-oriented concept of hierarchical ministry is combined with and expanded by the catholicity-oriented concept of the universal priesthood of the laity (Dulles 2006).

Dulles explores the universal priesthood in relation to the concrete, grace-filled events that take root in the lived reality of the laity—events which are inseparably linked to the effectiveness of the seven sacraments. Baptism marks the birth of a new disciple and incorporation into the Body of Christ, the Church. Confirmation is the mature disciple’s public declaration, empowering active participation in Gospel witness through the strength of the Holy Spirit. The Eucharist brings about personal communion with Jesus Christ. The Sacrament of Reconciliation announces the restoration of the fallen disciple and their reintegration into the community. The Anointing of the Sick expresses the disciple’s confession and comfort in union with Christ amid suffering. Matrimony becomes a grace-filled setting where children are nurtured as disciples within the family. Holy Orders signifies the emergence of a leader-disciple called to serve the community through public ministry (Dulles 1988a, 2014). Particularly through Holy Orders, the ordained ministerial priesthood is established as a personal representation of Jesus Christ who serves the community through the celebration of the sacraments. However, this ministry is not an isolated or autonomous function separate from the universal priesthood of the laity; rather, it is a structure of cooperative relationship grounded in personal communion within the one body of Christ (Dulles 1981a).

According to Dulles, the community of disciples is not just a gathering of individual believers but a body that has received apostolic authority through apostolic succession (Dulles 1987c). The Twelve, who lived in direct communion with Jesus, serve as the model for this community. Discipleship involves not only a personal response to the teacher Jesus but also a communal responsibility (Dulles 1982a, 2014). Such a community should be understood as an integrated structure where faith, sacrament, and discipleship are intrinsically united.

In conclusion, Dulles presents the ordained ministry—defined as a public office through the sacrament of Holy Orders within Catholicism—and the universal lay vocation, which is horizontal and quantitative in character, as unified through the common element of discipleship in Christ. Therefore, vertical discipleship—rooted in a relationship with Jesus—implies an integrated and horizontal concept of ministry that includes the communal responsibilities of living the faith in and with the Church (Massa S. J. 2007). In sum, Dulles’s framework presents a Church in which vertical Catholicism and horizontal catholicity are inseparably linked, showing that sacramental grace, institutional structure, and communal discipleship function together to realize the fullness of the Church’s mission. This synthesis of vertical and horizontal dimensions finds full expression in the Church as both sacrament and community of disciples—a communion that embodies, in tension and harmony, the richness of catholicity and the institutional identity of Catholicism.

6. Conclusions

Dulles’s theology of catholicity and ecclesiology provides a meaningful response to contemporary ecumenical movements and the challenges presented by a secularized world in the following respects.

First, if the Church as sacrament—symbolizing and manifesting invisible grace in the world—represents the vertical dimension of catholicity, and the Church as the community of disciples of Jesus Christ represents its horizontal dimension (Dulles 1977b, 1983, 1992a), then such an ecclesiological vision is particularly suitable for shaping the future direction of Christian ecumenism. This vision clarifies that all Christians, by the power of grace, are called to participate in the divine authority that belongs to Jesus himself. Faithfulness to Christ, therefore, is not determined by passive submission to hierarchical structures, liturgical celebrations, or doctrinal formulations, but rather by active discipleship. Moreover, this model of the Church emphasizes that although all Christian believers, as followers of Jesus Christ, have not yet achieved the fullness of the Church in this earthly life, they are called through the evangelical mission to continually evoke and embody the eschatological unity of the Church through sacramental signs (Dulles 1967, 1982a, 1987c, 1988b, 1989).

As Dulles himself acknowledges, the model of the Church as a sacrament is most prominent in Catholic symbolic theology. In contrast, the Protestant theological tradition tends to emphasize the model of the Church as the herald of the Word—a model that is arguably more familiar and accessible within the ecumenical landscape. Accordingly, the latter model may offer a more approachable framework for promoting Christian unity. Revelation also occurs directly through the Word, as a new awareness given to humanity. Such newly perceived revelation invites the world to recognize the power of divine salvation and to elevate personal goodness and moral values. Above all, the Church finds its identity through the proclamation of the Word and the witness it bears (Barth 1936; Carey 2010b; Dulles 1972c, 2014).

Second, Dulles’s theology of catholicity, when viewed from an ecumenical ecclesiological perspective, primarily centers on the proclamation of the Gospel, the spiritual growth and preservation of the faith community, and the role of the Holy Spirit’s guidance and grace in enabling these processes. His ecclesiology tends to emphasize the universal and communal cohesion of catholicity, highlighting the Church’s visible structure and its function as a sacramental instrument (Burns 1974; Carey 2010b; Kirmse 1989). In contemporary society, the Christian world faces numerous internal and external challenges, including divisions and conflicts within the Church, the rise of prosperity gospel theology that equates faith with material success, the commercialization of ecclesial life in corporate-style churches, the trend toward megachurch models, the weakening of the Church’s social role, political partisanship, and especially the lack of ecological responsibility.

Given the increasing secularism and value pluralism in today’s world, Dulles’ theological understanding of catholicity needs to be broadened—so that the Church, guided by the Holy Spirit, can become a transformative force in society and history, creatively renewing the world. For example, Jürgen Moltmann’s theology sees the essence of the Church as a community that is creatively shaped by the work of the Holy Spirit—a social and historical force for renewal. Consequently, the faith community is called to carry out its creative discipleship beyond the institutional boundaries of the Church.

Through this perspective, the Church is not merely a vertical structure or an expression of institutional unity, but rather functions as an eschatological sign and symbol (as a sacrament) pointing toward the concrete realization of social justice, ecological responsibility, and human liberation. This contrast highlights how different understandings of catholicity and the nature of the Church can be shaped within the scope of ecumenical theology. It also indicates that a pneumatological ecclesiology must go beyond focusing solely on internal unity to include the Church’s mission and responsibility in the world.

According to Moltmann, the Church’s creative discipleship, carried out in the power of the Holy Spirit, does not rest content with preserving or adapting to the existing social and legal order (Adiprasetya 2021; Moltmann 2001a, 2001b). Instead, it challenges the atheistic secularism deeply rooted in modern society—evident through rapid economic growth, industrialization, urban expansion, consumer culture, and environmental degradation—all of which have led to the weakening of traditional moral values (Welker 2024). This form of discipleship specifically includes the practical mission of ecological responsibility and preserving creation. In his book God in Creation, Moltmann (1985) critiques the long-standing Christian tendency to see creation merely as a resource for human use. He instead calls for a theological understanding of creation care, proposing that creative discipleship involves a vocation to live in harmony with the natural world (Moltmann 1985, 2019; Moltmann and Bedford-Strohm 2010).

Dulles, for his part, does not overlook the Church’s social responsibility. He grounds the Church’s outward mission in its visible mediating role and in the charismatic diversity granted by the Holy Spirit. In this context, he highlights the importance of ongoing renewal through critical reflection—an idea linked to the Protestant principle—while upholding the traditional authority, sacramentality, and structural integrity of the Church (Dulles 2014).

The most important contribution of Dulles’ theology of catholicity to the current ecumenical movement is his ability to provide a theological framework that differentiates between, without separating, catholicity and Catholicism. His ecumenical ecclesiology thus develops as an integrative theology where Church tradition and the movement of the Holy Spirit, visible mediation, and critical discernment operate together. However, unlike Jürgen Moltmann, Dulles does not focus on a liberative vision or an active push for socio-political change. Instead, he aims for ecumenical engagement through renewing theological and ecclesial tradition.

When the ecclesiology of the Church as a sacrament and the vertical aspect of catholicity—represented by Dulles’s vision of a community of disciples following Jesus Christ’s authority—are expanded into the horizontal aspect, symbolized by Moltmann’s community of creative discipleship bearing historical and social responsibility, the Church can embody a contemporary Christian identity that harmoniously integrates its inner spirituality and outward praxis.

By integrating Avery Dulles’s sacramental ecclesiology and his view of the Church as a community of disciples with Jürgen Moltmann’s model of creative discipleship, a theologically strong and mission-focused ecclesiology emerges. This synthesis affirms the Church’s vertical communion with Christ through visible mediation and tradition, while also expanding its mission into the horizontal realm of historical and social responsibility through the dynamic work of the Holy Spirit. Such an approach provides a comprehensive ecumenical framework where institutional unity, charismatic diversity, and prophetic engagement are balanced in a constructive tension. In an era marked by secularism, ecological crises, and moral fragmentation, this vision helps the Church serve as a transformative sign of both spiritual renewal and social hope. Consequently, this integrative ecclesiology contributes meaningfully to contemporary ecumenical discourse and practice, offering a concrete theological horizon within which local churches can discern how sacramental life, discipleship formation, and missional engagement mutually inform one another in responding to secularism, ecological crises, and widening social divisions today. Additionally, a practical ecclesiology that creatively realizes Christian identity through mission must be the most suitable form of ecumenism in today’s world, especially given the dominant influence of atheistic worldviews.

According to American theologian Carl E. Braaten, the missionary theology to which all Christian traditions must contribute today must ultimately aim at the evangelization of atheistic secularism. Doctrinal disputes within the Christian world often amount to little more than echoes in a void—irrelevant to the contemporary mindset shaped by the theology of the death of God (Braaten 1969). Dulles himself anticipated this concern early in his theological career through his editorial participation in the Hartford Appeal (more widely known as An Appeal for Theological Affirmation), which called for a renewed vision of ecumenical ecclesiology and missiology (Dulles 1976; Carey 2011; Kirmse 1989).4

Through the Hartford Appeal, Dulles did not support doctrinal uniformity or institutional compromise. Instead, in prophetic opposition to atheistic secularism and the death-of-God theology, he aligned with a new ecumenical movement rooted in the Christian pursuit of a just world (Carey 2010b; Dulles 1976; Kirmse and Canaris 2011). In doing so, he proposed a unique missiological approach—acknowledging both the strengths and limitations of various theological traditions within global Christianity—while urging for a united Christian witness to counter the dehumanizing effects of secularism and to work toward a greater communion of humanity (Carey 2010a, 2010b).

All Christian churches today must renew their commitment to a new ecumenism, guided by the Holy Spirit, through ongoing self-reform and pastoral, practical unity. In doing so, they must confront the atheistic ideologies, systemic injustices, human rights violations, and environmental degradation that obscure the very essence of Christian faith (Carey 2011). In this way, the Church—rooted in a sacramental ecclesiology, yet existing as a community of disciples and animated by the Spirit of creative discipleship—can become not only a sign of unity among Christians, but also a prophetic and reconciling presence in a fractured and pluralistic world.