The Sinicization of “ojas”, the Formation of “鬼舐/剃頭 Ghost Licking/Shaving Head”, and the Authenticity of the Guanding Sūtra

Abstract

The translations of the Sanskrit term “ojas (apahṛ)” in various Chinese versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra are as follows: The Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka) avoided translating “ojas” independently, rendering “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), and “得便” (taking advantage of). These translations are either perplexing or overly vague. Dharmagupta translated “ojas” as “魂魄” (soul/spirit) and “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “奪/害魂魄” (robbing/harming the soul/spirit), but the term “魂魄” (soul/spirit) is prone to ambiguity. Both Xuanzang and Yijing translated “ojas” as “精氣” (vital essence) and “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “奪精氣” (robbing the vital essence), with consistent and precise terminology throughout their translations. Without Sanskrit–Chinese collation or a comparison of different translations, it is impossible to establish a synonymous relationship between “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), “得便” (taking advantage of), “奪/害魂魄” (robbing/harming the soul/spirit), and “奪精氣” (robbing the vital energy). Assuming that the Guanding Sūtra is a translated sūtra from abroad, the aforementioned semantic differences can be reasonably explained, precisely reflecting the historical trajectory of its translation from uncertainty to certainty, from imprecision to precision, and from non-literal translation to literal translation. Meanwhile, the theory of it being a foreign-translated sūtra also helps explain the origin of the new phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head). If we assume that the Guanding Sūtra is a native apocryphal text that was translated into Sanskrit and then back into Chinese, there would be significant difficulties in explaining how “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), and “得便” (taking advantage of) could have been unified as “ojaḥ apahṛ” either during the translation into Sanskrit or in the process of transmission. Therefore, the translation trajectory of “ojaḥ (apahṛ)” and the emergence of the new phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head) could serve as linguistic empirical evidence supporting the theory that the text is a foreign-translated sūtra. According to the Chu Sanzang Jiji (Collection of Records of the Translation of the Tripiṭaka), this sūtra “circulated widely in the world”; thus, the phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head) should have been familiar to the general public. Alopecia areata, a condition characterized by sudden, patchy hair loss, was not understood by ancient people, who attributed it to “evil ghost licking the head” and thus referred to it as “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking head). This term emerged during the Sui Dynasty. After Xuanzang’s translation became the prevalent version, replacing the Guanding Sūtra, “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking head) gradually fell into obscurity and was replaced by “鬼剃頭” (ghost shaving head) during the Qing Dynasty.

1. Introduction

The Taishō Tripiṭaka currently contains four versions of Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra: Guanding Bachuguozui Shengsidedu Jing (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka for Removing Sins and Attaining Deliverance from Birth and Death, abbreviated as Guanding Sūtra or the Guanding version) translated by Śrīmitra during the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–322); the Yaoshirulai Benyuan Jing (Sūtra on Original Vows of Bhaiṣajyaguru Tathāgata) translated by Dharmagupta in the 11th year of Daye (615) of the Sui Dynasty; the Yaoshi Liuliguang Rulai Benyuan Gongde Jing (Sūtra on Original Vows and Merits of Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Tathāgata) translated by Xuanzang in the first year of Yonghui (650) of the Tang Dynasty; and the Yaoshi Liuliguang Qifo Benyuan Gongde Jing (Sūtra on Vows and Merits of Seven Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Buddhas) translated by Yijing in the third year of Shenlong (707) of the Tang Dynasty. There are different records of the Guanding version in various bibliographies: Sengyou’s Chu Sanzang Jiji (Collection of Records of the Translation of the Tripiṭaka) classified it as a suspect sūtra, believing it was compiled by Huijian, a monk from Luye Temple in Moling, in the first year of Daming (457) of the Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties based on existing sūtras1, and later included as the 12th volume of the Da Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Great Abhiṣeka)2. Fa Jing in the Sui Dynasty’s Zhongjing Mulu (Catalog of Buddhist Sūtras) and Yan Cong’s Zhongjing Mulu (Catalog of Buddhist Sūtras) doubted Sengyou’s judgment on the translation date and author3. Fei Changfang’s Lidai Sanbao Ji (Records of the Three Treasures through the Ages) agreed with Sengyou on the translation date but opposed the suspect sūtra theory after comparing the Brahman version4. Yan Cong’s Zhongjing Mulu listed the translator of the Da Guanding Sūtra as Śrīmitra of the Eastern Jin Dynasty5. Dao Xuan’s Datang Neidian Lu (Record of Buddhist Sūtras in the Great Tang Dynasty) specified the translation time of “Śrīmitra’s sūtra” as the Yuan Emperor period (317–322) of the Eastern Jin Dynasty6. Zhi Sheng’s Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu (Record of Buddhist Sūtras in the Kaiyuan Era) believed that the Guanding version was not translated by Huijian, but was an excerpt from the 12th volume of the Da Guanding Sūtra7, and confirmed it as a parallel translation with the other three versions, “In the above, the three sūtras are different translations of the same text. They share the same original as the Sūtra on Abhiṣeka for Removing Sins and Attaining Deliverance from Birth and Death (the 12th volume of the Da Guanding Sūtra). The two-fascicle version translated by Tripitaka master Yijing includes the original vows of six additional Buddhas and mantras, while the rest of the text is largely identical to Master Xuanzang’s translation. All ancient catalogs state that the old Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra was translated by Monk Huijian of Luye Temple during the Song Dynasty. However, a review of its text shows that it was excerpted from the 12th volume of the Da Guanding Sūtra for separate circulation, with no other independent versions existing” (55/594a8).

In the 1930s, Sanskrit manuscripts of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra were discovered in Gilgit, Pakistan, and Bamiyan, Afghanistan, attracting academic attention and sparking a debate over the authenticity of the Guanding Bachu Guozui Shengsi Dedu Jing (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka for Removing Sins and Attaining Deliverance from Birth and Death). Scholars including Ōmura Seigai (Ōmura 1918), Ono Gemmyō (Ono 1936), Mochizuki Shinkō (Mochizuki 1946), Shibata Yasushi (Shibata 1973), Osabe Kazuo (Osabe 1982), Lin Fushi (Lin 1994), Lü Jianfu (Lü 1995), Oka, Sumiaki (Oka 1997, 2004), Endō Yūsuke (Endō 2004), Strickmann, Michel (Strickmann 1990, 2002), Fang Guangchang (Fang 2011, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017), and Wu Xiaojie (X. Wu 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2011) promulgated the view that it is an indigenous fake scripture in China. Their main arguments are as follows: the sūtra contains non-Indian elements, interspersed with elements of Taoism and Chinese folk beliefs; the Chinese version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra predates the Sanskrit version; and Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha achieved deification in the Guanding Sūtra. Additionally, Mochizuki Shinkō, Fang Guangchang, and Wu Xiaojie further proposed that this sūtra was first composed in China, then introduced to India and translated into Sanskrit, before being translated back into Chinese by Dharmagupta, Xuanzang, and Yijing. Scholars such as Yang Weizhong (Yang 2014), Ding Yi (Ding 2015), Wang Feipeng (F. Wang 2017), and Fan Muyou (Fan 2019) promote the theory that the text is a translated scripture from foreign sources, with their main arguments being as follows: there have been verifiable Sanskrit versions from the Sui Dynasty to the present day; the Sanskrit Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra uses a typical Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, showing no traces of translation; the date of a Sanskrit Buddhist manuscript is not equivalent to the date of the text’s origin; the indigenous Chinese elements in the Guanding version may be the result of adaptive translation; multiple Buddhist scriptures prior to the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra already contained elements of Bhaiṣajyaguru belief, and the “divine status” of Bhaiṣajyaguru is not unique to this sūtra—other Buddhas and Bodhisattvas also possess similar functions, while the name of Bhaiṣajyaguru Tathāgata is also found in several Buddhist texts; Indian esoteric Buddhism provided a fertile ground for the emergence of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra and Bhaiṣajyaguru belief.

This paper takes P.L. Vaidya’s edition of the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaidūryaprabharāja Sūtra as the Sanskrit text for collation9. Beginning with a comparison of the translations of the Sanskrit phrase “(amanuṣyaiḥ tasya) ojaḥ apahartum [apahṛ]” across various Chinese versions, it pursues three objectives:

First, to examine the trajectory of the Sinicization10 of the foreign concept “ojas”;

Second, based on the Sinicization of “ojas” and the emergence of the phrase “惡鬼舐頭 èguǐ shìtóu” (evil ghosts licking the head), to refute the theory that the text is an indigenous apocryphal scripture and provide linguistic empirical evidence for the theory that it is a foreign translated scripture—this constitutes the main purpose of the paper;

Third, to analyze the basis for regarding “惡鬼舐頭 èguǐ shìtóu” (evil ghost licking the head) in the Guanding Sūtra as the source of “鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu” (ghost licking the head) and “鬼剃頭 guǐtìtóu” (ghost shaving the head) in medical classics.

2. The Translation Trajectory of Sanskrit “ojas” and “ojaḥ apahṛ”

The Sanskrit Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Sūtra mentions “ojaḥ11 apahṛ” three times. Here is an analysis of the most corresponding example between the Guanding version and other translated versions. First, the Sanskrit original is listed, followed by the translation of the Guanding version in the Taishō Tripiṭaka and its parallel translations.

(1) a. Sanskrit Text with Transliteration Notes: yaḥ (this) ca (and) mātṛ-grāmaḥ (woman) prasavana-kāle (childbirth time) tīvrām (sharp) duḥkhām (painful) kharām (strong) kaṭukām (pungent) vedanām (feeling) vedayati (perceives) yā (she) tasya (this) bhagavataḥ (World-Honored One) bhaiṣajya-guru-vaidūrya-prabhasya (Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha) tathāgatasya (Tathāgata) nāmadheyam (name) anusmaret (remembers) pūjām (worship) ca (and) kuryāt (does) sā (she) sukham (comfortably) ca (and) prasūyate (gives birth) sarva-aṅga-paripūrṇam (all limbs complete) putram (son) ca (and) janayiṣyati (will give birth) abhirūpaḥ (beautiful) prāsādikaḥ (pure, dignified) darśanīyaḥ (lovable) tīkṣṇa-indriyaḥ (sharp senses) buddhimān (intelligent) saḥ (he) ārogya-svalpa-ābādhaḥ (healthy, few illnesses) bhaviṣyati (will be) na (not) ca (and) śkyate (can) amanuṣyaiḥ (non-humans, ghosts) tasya (his) ojaḥ (XX12) apahartum (to seize). (pp. 142–43).

Modern translation: If a woman suffers sharp and severe pain during childbirth, she should remember and worship the name of this World-Honored One, Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Tathāgata. Thus, she will give birth comfortably and have a son with complete limbs, beautiful appearance, lovable, sharp senses, and intelligence. This son will be healthy and rarely ill, and no ghost can seize his XX. (p. 142) 13

b. 若他婦女生產難者，皆當念是瑠璃光佛，兒則易生，身體平正，無諸疾痛，六情完具，聰明智慧，壽命得長，不遭抂橫，善神擁護，不為惡鬼舐其頭也。 Ruò tā fùnǚ shēngchǎn nán zhě, jiē dāng niàn shì liúlíguāng fó, ér zé yì shēng, shēntǐ píngzhèng, wú zhū jítòng, liùqíng wánjù, cōngmíng zhìhuì, shòumìng dé cháng, bù zāo wǎng hèng, shànshén yōnghù, bù wéi èguǐ shì qí tóu yě. [If other women have difficult childbirth, they should all recite the name of the Liuli Guang Buddha, and the child will be born easily, with a normal body, free from all diseases, complete six senses, intelligent, long-lived, not encountering sudden death, protected by good gods, and not licked on the head by evil ghosts.] (Guanding version, 21/534c).

c. 或有女人臨當產時，受於極苦，若能稱名供養彼世尊藥師琉璃光如來者，速得解脫，所生之子身分具足，形色端正，見者歡喜，利根聰明，安隱少病，無有非人奪其魂魄。 Huò yǒu nǚrén lín dāng chǎn shí, shòu yú jí kǔ, ruò néng chēng míng gòngyǎng bǐ shìzūn Yàoshī Liúlíguāng Rúlái zhě, sù dé jiětuō, suǒ shēng zhī zǐ shēnfèn jùzú, xíngsè duānzhèng, jiàn zhě huānxǐ, lìgēn cōngmíng, ānwěn shǎo bìng, wú yǒu fēirén duó qí húnpò. [Or when a woman is about to give birth and suffers extreme pain, if she can recite the name and worship the World-Honored One Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Tathāgata, she will quickly be liberated. The child born will have complete limbs, dignified appearance, lovable, sharp-witted, peaceful, and rarely ill, and no non-human will rob his soul.] (Dharmagupta version, 14/403b).

d. 或有女人臨當產時，受於極苦，若能至心稱名，禮讚恭敬，供養彼如來者，眾苦皆除，所生之子身分具足，形色端正，見者歡喜，利根聰明，安隱少病，無有非人奪其精氣。 Huò yǒu nǚrén lín dāng chǎn shí, shòu yú jí kǔ, ruò néng zhìxīn chēng míng, lǐzàn gōngjìng, gòngyǎng bǐ Rúlái zhě, zhòng kǔ jiē chú, suǒ shēng zhī zǐ shēnfèn jùzú, xíngsè duānzhèng, jiàn zhě huānxǐ, lìgēn cōngmíng, ānyǐn shǎo bìng, wú yǒu fēirén duó qí jīngqì. [Or when a woman is about to give birth and suffers extreme pain, if she can wholeheartedly recite the name, pay homage, and worship the Tathāgata, all sufferings will be removed. The child born will have complete limbs, dignified appearance, lovable, sharp-witted, peaceful, and rarely ill, and no non-human will rob his vital energy.] (Xuanzang version, 14/407a).

e. 或有女人臨當產時，受於極苦，若能至心稱名，禮讚恭敬，供養七佛如來，眾苦皆除，所生之子顏貌端正，見者歡喜，利根聰明，少病安樂，無有非人奪其精氣。 Huò yǒu nǚrén lín dāng chǎn shí, shòu yú jí kǔ, ruò néng zhìxīn chēngmíng, lǐzàn gōngjìng, gòngyǎng qī fó Rúlái, zhòng kǔ jiē chú, suǒ shēng zhī zǐ yánmào duānzhèng, jiàn zhě huānxǐ, lìgēn cōngmíng, shǎo bìng ānlè, wú yǒu fēirén duó qí jīngqì. [Or when a woman is about to give birth and suffers extreme pain, if she can wholeheartedly recite the name, pay homage, and worship the Seven Buddha Tathāgatas, all sufferings will be removed. The child born will have a dignified appearance, lovable, sharp-witted, less ill, and peaceful, and no non-human will rob his vital energy.] (Yijing version, 14/415b).

In terms of content, the translations of this passage in each version are basically the same. In the phrase “amanuṣyaiḥ tasya ojaḥ apahartum”, “amanuṣyaiḥ” is in the plural, instrumental case; “tasya” is in the singular, genitive case; “ojaḥ” is the sandhi of ojas; “apahartum” is the infinitive of the verb apahṛ. The translations of the Guanding version, Dharmagupta version, Xuanzang version, and Yijing version are, respectively, “惡鬼舐其頭 èguǐ shì qí tóu” (evil ghost licking his head), “非人奪其魂魄 fēirén duó qí húnpò” (non-human robbing his soul), and “非人奪其精氣 fēirén duó qí jīng qì” (non-human robbing his vital energy), among which “fēi rén” (non-human) is a general term for ghosts and spirits, corresponding to the Sanskrit “amanuṣyaiḥ”. In the ancient people’s cognition, evil ghosts rob people’s souls or vital energy by licking the top of the head. “舐頭 Shìtóu” (licking the head) describes the action of evil ghosts harming the human body, while “奪魂魄 duó húnpò” (seizing the soul) and “奪精氣 duó jīngqì” (seizing vital energy) express the purpose and effect of the action of “舐頭 shìtóu” (licking the head) by evil ghosts. The three have different literal meanings but the same real reference.

“Ojas” is a unique concept in ancient India. Sanskrit–English dictionaries explain it as “bodily strength, vigour, energy, ability, power; vitality (the principle of vital warmth and action throughout the body); water; light, splendour, lustre, etc” (Monier-Williams 1899), and the Sanskrit-Chinese Dictionary explains “ojas” as: lì/nénglì [power, capacity], quán/wēi/shì [authority, majesty, dominance]; jīng/jīngqì [vital essence, seminal energy], qìlì [vital force, stamina], shén/shénsè [divine aura, luminous presence], shìwèi [potency], guānghuī/guāngsè/jīngguāng [brilliance, radiance, effulgence], miàodé [sublime virtue]. (Lin and Lin 2005) “Ojaḥ apahṛ” means robbing the body’s energy. “舐頭 shìtóu” (licking the head) is an image-based translation of “ojaḥ apahṛ”, a typical action imagined for evil ghosts to rob the body’s energy. “奪魂魄 Duó húnpò” (robbing the soul) and “奪精氣 duó jīngqì” (robbing vital energy) are concept-based translations of “ojaḥ apahṛ”, using pure Chinese terminology to translate the invasion of the body’s energy by evil ghosts.

There are two other instances of “ojaḥ apahṛ” in the Sanskrit Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Sūtra. One of them and the corresponding Chinese translation are as follows:

(2) a. Sanskrit Text with Transliteration Notes: tasya (this) bhagabataḥ (World-Honored One) bhaiṣajya-guru-vaidūrya-prabhasya (Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha) tathāgatasya (Tathāgata) pūrva-praṇidhāna-viśeṣa-vistara-vibhāgam (various excellent grand original vows) ca (and) tasya (this) tathāgatasya (Tathāgata) nāmadheyam (name) dhārayiṣyanti (uphold, remember) teṣām (these) na (not) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) bhaviṣyati (exists) na (not) teṣām (these) kenacit (any) śakyam (can) ojaḥ (XX) apahartum (to seize) hṛtam (seized) vā (or) ojaḥ (XX) punar (again) api (also) pratisaṃharati (restores). (p. 138).

Modern translation: If sentient beings remember the various excellent grand original vows of this World-Honored One Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Tathāgata and the name of this Tathāgata, they will not die untimely. No one can seize their XX. Even if seized, it will be restored. (pp. 137–38).

b. 若有男子女人愛樂是經，受持讀誦宣通之者，復能專念，若一日二日三日四日五日，乃至七日憶念不忘；能以好素帛紙書取是經，五色雜綵作囊盛之者，是時當有諸天善神、四天大王龍神八部，當來營衛愛敬此經；能日日作禮，是持經者不墮橫死，所在安隱惡氣消滅。諸魔鬼神亦不中害。 Ruò yǒu nánzǐ nǚrén ài lè shì jīng, shòuchí dúsòng xuān tōng zhī zhě, fù néng zhuān niàn, ruò yī rì èr rì sān rì sì rì wǔ rì, nǎi zhì qī rì yì niàn bù wàng; néng yǐ hǎo sù bó zhǐ shū qǔ shì jīng, wǔ sè zá cǎi zuò náng chéng zhī zhě, shì shí dāng yǒu zhū tiān shàn shén、sìtiān dàwáng lóngshén bābù, dāng lái yíng wèi àijìng cǐ jīng; néng rìrì zuò lǐ, shì chí jīng zhě bù duò hèng sǐ, suǒ zài ānyǐn èqì xiāomiè. Zhū mó guǐshén yì bù zhònghài. [If men or women love this sūtra, uphold, recite, and propagate it, and can concentrate their minds, remembering it without forgetting for one to seven days; if they can write this sūtra on fine silk or paper and put it in a bag made of five-colored silk, then at this time, various heavenly gods, the Four Heavenly Kings, and the Eight Classes of Divine Dragons will come to protect and respect this sūtra. Those who can pay homage daily will not fall into sudden death, will be safe wherever they are, and evil qi will be eliminated. Various demons and ghosts will not harm them either.] (Guanding version, 21/533c).

c. 若此經卷流行之處，若復有人誦持此經，以得聞彼世尊藥師琉璃光如來名號，及本昔所發殊勝大願故，當知是處無復橫死，亦復不為諸鬼所持奪其魂魄，設已奪者，還復如故。 Ruò cǐ jīngjuàn liúxíng zhī chù, ruò fù yǒu rén sòngchí cǐ jīng, yǐ dé wén bǐ shìzūn Yàoshī Liúlíguāng Rúlái mínghào, jí běn xī suǒ fā shūshèng dàyuàn gù, dāng zhī shì chù wú fù hèngsǐ, yì fù bù wéi zhū guǐ suǒ chí duó qí húnpò, shè yǐ duó zhě, huán fù rúgù. [Where this sūtra is popular, if someone recites and upholds this sūtra, and hears the name of the World-Honored One Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Tathāgata and his past excellent great vows, it is known that in such a place there will be no more sudden deaths, and no various ghosts will rob their souls. If already robbed, it will be restored as before.] (Dharmagupta version, 14/403a).

d. 若此經寶流行之處，有能受持，以彼世尊藥師琉璃光如來本願功德，及聞名號，當知是處無復橫死；亦復不為諸惡鬼神奪其精氣；設已奪者，還得如故，身心安樂。 Ruò cǐ jīng bǎo liúxíng zhī chù, yǒu néng shòuchí, yǐ bǐ shìzūn Yàoshī Liúlíguāng Rúlái běnyuàn gōngdé, jí wén mínghào, dāng zhī shì chù wú fù hèngsǐ; yì fù bù wéi zhū è guǐshén duó qí jīngqì; shè yǐ duó zhě, huán dé rú gù, shēnxīn ānlè. [Where this precious sūtra is popular, if someone can uphold it, due to the merit and virtue of the original vows of the World-Honored One Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Tathāgata and hearing his name, know that in such a place there will be no more sudden deaths; nor will various evil ghosts rob their vital energy; if already robbed, they will regain it and be peaceful in body and mind.] (Xuanzang version, 14/406c).

e. 若此經寶流行之處，及受持者，以彼七佛如來本願功德，及聞名號威神之力，當知是處無復橫死，亦復不為諸惡鬼神奪其精氣，設已奪者，還得如故，身心安樂。 Ruò cǐ jīng bǎo liúxíng zhī chù, jí shòuchí zhě, yǐ bǐ qī fó Rúlái běnyuàn gōngdé, jí wén mínghào wēishén zhī lì, dāng zhī shì chù wú fù hèngsǐ, yì fù bù wéi zhū è guǐshén duó qí jīngqì, shè yǐ duó zhě, huán dé rú gù, shēnxīn ānlè. [Where this precious sūtra is popular and those who uphold it, due to the merit and virtue of the original vows of the Seven Buddha Tathāgatas and the power of hearing their names, know that in such a place there will be no more sudden deaths, nor will various evil ghosts rob their vital energy; if already robbed, they will regain it and be peaceful in body and mind.] (Yijing version, 14/415a).

In this passage of example 2, the translations of the Dharmagupta version, Xuanzang version, and Yijing version are basically the same, while the Guanding version differs significantly from them. However, like other versions, it mentions three key plots: upholding this sūtra, not suffering sudden death, and not being harmed by ghosts. Therefore, there are corresponding sentences. The Sanskrit version omits the agent, while all Chinese versions supply it. The Guanding version’s “諸魔鬼神…中害 zhū mó guǐshén… zhònghài” (various demons and ghosts… harm) corresponds to the Dharmagupta version’s “諸鬼…奪其魂魄 zhū guǐ duó qí húnpò” (various ghosts rob their souls) and the Xuanzang and Yijing versions’ “諸惡鬼神奪其精氣 zhū è guǐshén duó qí jīngqì” (various evil ghosts rob their vital energy), all of which are translations of the Sanskrit phrase “ojaḥ apahartum(apahṛ)”.

Below is another example of “ojaḥ apahṛ” in the Sanskrit Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Sūtra and its corresponding Chinese translations:

(3) a. Sanskrit Text with Transliteration Notes: santi (there are) sattvāḥ (beings) vyādhitāḥ (afflicted by illness) na (not) ca (and) gurukaḥ (severe) vyādhiḥ (disease) bhaiṣajya-upasthāpaka-virahitaḥ (lacking medicine and caregivers) yadi-vā (or) vaidyaḥ (physicians) bhaiṣajyam (medicine) kurvanti (administer) idam (this) prathamam (first) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) dvitīyam (second) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) yasya (those who) rāja-daṇḍena (royal punishment with rod) kāla-kriyā (meet death) tṛtīyam (third) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) ye (those who) atīva (excessively) pramattāḥ (intoxicated) pramāda (licentiousness)-vihāriṇaḥ (living) teṣām (of these) manuṣyāḥ (humans) ojaḥ (X) apaharanti (seize) caturtham (fourth) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) ye (those who) agni-dāhena (by fire) kālam (death) kurvanti (meet) pañcamam (fifth) ca (and) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) ye (those who) ca (and) udakena (by water) mriyante (die) ṣaṣṭham (sixth) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) ye (those who) siṃha (lion)-vyāghra (tiger)-vyāla (ferocious)-caṇḍa (savage)-mṛga (beast)-madhya (among)-gatāḥ (dwelling) vāsam (abode) kalpayanti (bring upon) mriyante (die) ca (and) saptamam (seventh) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) ye (those who) giri-taṭāt (mountain cliffs) prapatanti (fall from) aṣṭamam (eighth) akāla-marṇam (untimely death) ye (those who) viṣa-kākhorda-vetāla-anuprayogeṇa (by the application of poison, kākhorda spirits, and vetāla demons14) mriyante (die) navamam (ninth) akāla-maraṇam (untimely death) ye (those who) kṣudh-tṛṣā-upahatāḥ (afflicted by hunger and thirst) āhāra-pānam (food and drink) alabhamānāḥ (deprived of) ārtāḥ (tormented) kālam (death) kurvanti (administer) etāni (these) saṃkṣepatas (briefly) akāla-maraṇāni (untimely deaths) tathāgateṇa (by the Tathāgata) nirdiṣṭāni (pointed out) anyāni (other) ca (and) aprameyāṇi (countless) akāla-maraṇāni (untimely deaths). (pp. 154–55).

Modern Chinese translation: Some sentient beings fall ill, but their illnesses are not severe; however, they lack medicine and caregivers. Alternatively, physicians may fail to prescribe the appropriate treatment. This is the first type of untimely death. The second is death by execution for violating royal law. The third is when beings indulge in drinking and debauchery without restraint, and demons seize their X. The fourth is death by fire. The fifth is drowning. The sixth is being devoured by ferocious beasts like lions and tigers when dwelling among them. The seventh is falling from a mountain cliff. The eighth is death by poison, or at the hands of cursed demons and revenant spirits. The ninth is dying from torment caused by hunger and thirst, due to lack of food and drink. These are the nine types of untimely death briefly pointed out by the Tathāgata. There are also countless other forms of untimely death. (pp. 154–55).

b. 一者、橫病；二者、橫有口舌；三者、橫遭縣官；四者、身羸無福，又持戒不完，橫為鬼神之所得便；五者、橫為劫賊所剝；六者、橫為水火災漂；七者、橫為雜類禽獸所噉；八者、橫為怨讎符書厭禱邪神牽引，未得其福，但受其殃，先亡牽引，亦名橫死；九者、有病不治，又不修福，湯藥不順，針炙失度，不值良醫，為病所困，於是滅亡。又信世間妖㜸之師，為作恐動寒熱言語，妄發禍福，所犯者多，心不自正，不能自定，卜問覓禍，殺猪狗牛羊種種眾生，解奏神明，呼諸邪妖魍魎鬼神，請乞福祚，欲望長生，終不能得，愚癡迷惑信邪倒見，死入地獄展轉其中無解脫時。是名九橫。 Yī zhě、hèngbìng; Èr zhě、hèng yǒu kǒushé; Sān zhě、hèng zāo xiànguān; Sì zhě、shēn léi wú fú, yòu chí jiè bù wán, hèng wéi guǐshén zhī suǒ débiàn; Wǔ zhě、hèng wéi jiézéi suǒ bō; Liù zhě、hèng wéi shuǐhuǒ zāi piāo; Qī zhě、hèng wéi zá lèi qínshòu suǒ dàn; Bā zhě、hèng wéi yuànchóu fúshū yàn dǎo xiéshén qiānyǐn, wèi dé qí fú, dàn shòu qí yāng, xiān wáng qiānyǐn, yì míng hèngsǐ; Jiǔ zhě、yǒu bìng bù zhì, yòu bù xiūfú, tāngyào bù shùn, zhēnjiǔ shī dù, bù zhí liángyī, wéi bìng suǒ kùn, yú shì mièwáng. Yòu xìn shìjiān yāoniè zhī shī, wéi zuò kǒngdòng hánrè yányǔ, wàng fā huòfú, suǒ fàn zhě duō, xīn bù zì zhèng, bù néng zì dìng, bǔwèn mì huò, shā zhūgǒuniúyáng zhǒngzhǒng zhòngshēng, jiě zòu shénmíng, hū zhū xiéyāo wǎngliǎng guǐshén, qǐng qǐ fúzuò, yùwàng chángshēng, zhōng bù néng dé, Yúchī míhuò xìn xiédǎo jiàn, sǐ rù dìyù zhǎnzhuǎn qízhōng wú jiětuō shí. Shì míng Jiǔ Hèng. [First, Sudden illness leading to untimely death. Second, Sudden conflict and slander. Third, Sudden punishment by local authorities. Fourth, Being physically weak and lacking merit, with incomplete precept-keeping, one is thus suddenly being taken advantage of by ghosts and spirits. Fifth, Sudden robbery and plunder by bandits. Sixth, Sudden death by drowning in floods or burning in fires. Seventh, Sudden devouring by various wild animals and beasts. Eighth, Sudden death led astray by vengeful spirits, sorcery, curses, and evil deities—failing to gain blessings, only incurring calamity, pulled by the deceased; also called untimely death. Ninth, Having an illness but refusing treatment, not cultivating merit, taking inappropriate medicine, applying acupuncture improperly, failing to meet a good physician, and thus perishing from the disease. Moreover, trusting worldly sorcerers who create fear with false omens and fabricate fortunes/misfortunes—committing many transgressions, with uncentered minds unable to find peace; seeking divination that invites calamity, slaughtering pigs, dogs, cows, sheep, and various living beings to offer to deities, invoking evil spirits and goblins for blessings—desiring longevity but never attaining it. Blinded by ignorance and delusion, holding wrong views and trusting evil, they fall into hell after death, endlessly revolving without liberation. These are called the nine untimely death. (Guanding Version, 21/535c).

c. 或有眾生，得病非重，然無醫藥及看病人，或復醫人療治失所，非時而死，是為初橫；第二橫者，王法所殺；第三橫者，遊獵、放逸、婬醉無度，為諸非人害其魂魄；第四橫者，為火所燒；第五橫者，為水所溺；第六橫者，入師子、虎豹、諸惡獸中；第七橫者，飢渴所困，不得飲食，因此致死；第八橫者，厭禱、毒藥、起屍鬼等之所損害；第九橫者，投巖取死，是名如來略說大橫有此九種，其餘復有無量諸橫。 Huò yǒu zhòngshēng, dé bìng fēi zhòng, rán wú yīyào jí kānbìngrén, huò fù yīrén liáozhì shī suǒ, fēi shí ér sǐ, shì wéi chū hèng; Dì èr hèng zhě, wángfǎ suǒ shā; Dì sān hèng zhě, yóuliè、fàngyì、yínzuì wú dù, wéi zhū fēirén hài qí húnpò; Dì sì hèng zhě, wéi huǒ suǒ shāo; Dì wǔ hèng zhě, wéi shuǐ suǒ nì; Dì liù hèng zhě, rù shīzi、hǔbào、zhū èshòu zhōng; Dì qī hèng zhě, jīkě suǒ kùn, bù dé yǐnshí, yīncǐ zhì sǐ; Dì bā hèng zhě, yàndǎo、dúyào、qǐshīguǐ děng zhī suǒ sǔnhài; Dì jiǔ hèng zhě, tóu yán qǔ sǐ, shì míng Rúlái lüè shuō dà hèng yǒu cǐ jiǔ zhǒng, qíyú fù yǒu wúliàng zhū hèng. [There are sentient beings who fall ill but not seriously, yet lack medicine and caregivers; or physicians treat them improperly, leading to untimely death—this is the first untimely death (heng). The second heng is death by royal law. The third heng: hunting, indulgence, unrestrained debauchery and intoxication, whereby non-human beings harm one’s soul. The fourth heng is death by fire. The fifth heng is death by drowning. The sixth heng is entering the midst of lions, tigers, leopards, and ferocious beasts. The seventh heng tormented by hunger and thirst, failing to obtain food and drink, thus dying. The eighth heng is harm from curses, poisons, revenant spirits, etc. The ninth heng is death by throwing oneself off a cliff. These are the nine great hengs (untimely deaths) briefly described by the Tathāgata, with countless other such untimely deaths besides.] (Dharmagupta version, 14/404a).

d. 若諸有情，得病雖輕，然無醫藥及看病者，設復遇醫，授以非藥，實不應死而便橫死。又信世間邪魔外道、妖𦾨之師，妄說禍福，便生恐動，心不自正，卜問覓禍，殺種種眾生，解奏神明，呼諸魍魎，請乞福祐，欲冀延年，終不能得；愚癡迷惑，信邪倒見，遂令橫死，入於地獄，無有出期，是名初橫。二者，橫被王法之所誅戮。三者，畋獵嬉戲，耽婬嗜酒，放逸無度，橫為非人奪其精氣。四者，橫為火焚。五者，橫為水溺。六者，橫為種種惡獸所噉。七者，橫墮山崖。八者，橫為毒藥、厭禱、呪詛、起屍鬼等之所中害。九者，飢渴所困，不得飲食而便橫死。是為如來略說橫死，有此九種。其餘復有無量諸橫，難可具說。 Ruò zhū yǒuqíng, dé bìng suī qīng, rán wú yīyào jí kānbìngzhě, shè fù yù yī, shòu yǐ fēi yào, shí bù yīng sǐ ér biàn hèngsǐ. Yòu xìn shìjiān xiémó wàidào、yāoniè zhī shī, wàng shuō huòfú, biàn shēng kǒngdòng, xīn bù zì zhèng, bǔwèn mì huò, shā zhǒngzhǒng zhòngshēng, jiě zòu shénmíng, hū zhū wǎngliǎng, qǐng qǐ fúyòu, yù jì yán nián, zhōng bù néng dé; yúchī míhuò, xìn xiédào jiàn, suì lìng hèngsǐ, rù yú dìyù, wú yǒu chūqī, shì míng chūhèng. Èr zhě, hèng bèi wángfǎ zhī suǒ zhūlù. Sān zhě, tiánliè xīxì, dān yín shìjiǔ, fàngyì wúdù, hèng wéi fēirén duó qí jīngqì. Sì zhě, hèng wéi huǒ fén. Wǔ zhě, hèng wéi shuǐ nì. Liù zhě, hèng wéi zhǒngzhǒng èshòu suǒ dàn. Qī zhě, hèng duò shān yá. Bā zhě, hèng wéi dúyào、yàndǎo、zhòuzǔ、qǐshīguǐ děng zhī suǒ zhònghài. Jiǔ zhě, jīkě suǒ kùn, bù dé yǐnshí ér biàn hèngsǐ. Shì wéi Rúlái lüè shuō hèngsǐ, yǒu cǐ jiǔ zhǒng. Qíyú fù yǒu wúliàng zhū hèng, nán kě jù shuō. [If there are sentient beings who fall ill mildly but lack medicine and caregivers, or even if they meet a physician, they are given inappropriate remedies, causing them to die premature when they should not. Additionally, those who believe in worldly demonic heterodox sects and sorcerous masters, who fabricate fortunes and misfortunes, become fearful and agitated. Their minds lose balance as they seek divination, only to invite calamity. They slaughter various living beings to offer to deities, summon goblins, and pray for blessings in hopes of longevity—but it is never achieved. Blinded by ignorance and delusion, holding wrong views and trusting evil, they die prematurely and fall into hell, with no end in sight. This is called the first untimely death. The second, untimely execution by royal law. The third, untimely being robbed of one’s vital energy by non-human beings due to hunting, revelry, indulgence in lust and alcohol, and unrestrained debauchery. The fourth, untimely death by fire. The fifth, untimely death by drowning. The sixth, untimely devouring by various ferocious beasts. The seventh, untimely falling from a mountain cliff. The eighth, untimely harm from poisons, curses, spells, and revenant spirits. The ninth, untimely death from hunger and thirst, unable to obtain food and drink. These are the nine types of untimely death briefly described by the Tathāgata. There are countless other forms of untimely death too numerous to mention.] (Xuanzang Version, 14/408a).

e. 一者，若諸有情，得病雖輕，然無醫藥及看病者，設復遇醫，不授其藥，實不應死，而便橫死；又信世間邪魔外道、妖㜸之師，妄說禍福，便生恐動，心不自正，卜問吉凶，殺諸眾生，求神解奏，呼召魍魎，請福祈恩，欲冀延年，終不能得，愚迷倒見，遂令橫死，入於地獄，無有出期。二者，橫為王法之所誅戮。三者，畋獵嬉戲，耽婬嗜酒，放逸無度，橫為非人奪其精氣。四者，橫為火焚。五者，橫為水溺。六者，橫為種種惡獸所噉。七者，橫墮山崖。八者，橫為毒藥、厭禱、呪詛、起屍鬼等之所中害。九者，飢渴所困，不得飲食而便橫死。是為如來略說橫死，有此九種，其餘復有無量諸橫，難可具說。 Yī zhě, ruò zhū yǒuqíng, dé bìng suī qīng, rán wú yīyào jí kānbìngzhě, shè fù yù yī, bù shòu qí yào, shí bù yīng sǐ, ér biàn hèngsǐ; yòu xìn shìjiān xiémó wàidào, yāoniè zhī shī, wàng shuō huòfú, biàn shēng kǒngdòng, xīn bù zì zhèng, bǔwèn jíxiōng, shā zhū zhòngshēng, qiú shén jiě zòu, hūzhào wǎngliǎng, qǐng fú qí ēn, yù jì yánnián, zhōng bù néng dé, yú mí dàojiàn, suì lìng hèngsǐ, rù yú dìyù, wú yǒu chūqī. Èr zhě, hèng wéi wángfǎ zhī suǒ zhūlù. Sān zhě, tiánliè xīxì, dānyín shìjiǔ, fàngyì wúdù, hèng wéi fēirén duó qí jīngqì. Sì zhě, hèng wéi huǒ fén. Wǔ zhě, hèng wéi shuǐ nì. Liù zhě, hèng wéi zhǒngzhǒng èshòu suǒ dàn. Qī zhě, hèng duò shānyá. Bā zhě, hèng wéi dúyào, yàndǎo, zhòuzǔ, qǐshīguǐ děng zhī suǒ zhònghài. Jiǔ zhě, jīkě suǒ kùn, bù dé yǐnshí ér biàn hèngsǐ. Shì wéi Rúlái lüè shuō hèngsǐ, yǒu cǐ jiǔ zhǒng, qíyú fù yǒu wúliàng zhū hèng, nán kě jù shuō. [First, if there are sentient beings who fall ill mildly but lack medicine and caregivers, or even if they meet a physician, no proper medicine is administered—thus they die prematurely when they should not. Additionally, those who believe in worldly demonic heterodox sects and sorcerous masters, who fabricate fortunes and misfortunes, become fearful and agitated. Their minds lose balance as they seek divination for auspices, slaughter living beings, offer sacrifices to deities, summon goblins, and pray for blessings in hopes of longevity—but it is never achieved. Blinded by ignorance and wrong views, they die prematurely and fall into hell, with no end in sight. Second, untimely execution by royal law. Third, untimely being robbed of one’s vital energy by non-human beings due to hunting, revelry, indulgence in lust and alcohol, and unrestrained debauchery. Fourth, untimely death by fire. Fifth, untimely death by drowning. Sixth, untimely devouring by various ferocious beasts. Seventh, untimely falling from a mountain cliff. Eighth, untimely harm from poisons, curses, spells, and revenant spirits. Ninth, untimely death from hunger and thirst, unable to obtain food and drink. These are the nine types of untimely death briefly expounded by the Tathāgata. There are countless other forms of untimely death too numerous to mention.] (Yijing Version, 14/416a).

Example 3 discusses the nine types of untimely death (i.e., hengsi). The Xuanzang and Yijing versions differ only in minor wording, with the nine types of hengsi identical to the Sanskrit version and in the same order. The nine types in the Dharmagupta version also match the Sanskrit, except that the seventh and ninth hengsi are reversed in order. The Guanding version has both similarities and differences in content compared to other versions, with inconsistent ordering. The fourth untimely death in the Guanding version, “incomplete precept-keeping,” corresponds to the cause described in the third heng of the Dharmagupta version, “hunting, indulgence, unrestrained debauchery and intoxication,” and the third heng of the Xuanzang and Yijing versions, “hunting, revelry, indulgence in lust and alcohol, and unrestrained debauchery.” The Guanding version provides an abstract characterization, while the other three versions offer specific explanations of the practical manifestations of “incomplete precept-keeping.” Thus, the hengsi suffered in each version are equivalent, that is, “鬼神…得便 guǐshén…débiàn“ (being taken advantage of by ghosts and spirits) in the Guanding version is the same as “非人害其魂魄 fēirén hài qí húnpò” (non-human beings harming one’s soul) and “非人奪其精氣 fēirén duó qí jīngqì” (being robbed of one’s vital energy by non-human beings) in other versions, all being translations of the Sanskrit “ojaḥ apaharanti(apahṛ)”.

The significant differences in the nine types of untimely deaths between the Guanding version and the later translations indicate that the Guanding version had a unique transmission history. It likely derived from an early Sanskrit text, whereas the translations by Dharmagupta, Xuanzang, and Yijing were based on later revised versions.

The translation of the Sanskrit word “ojas” and the phrase “ojaḥ apahṛ“ from the Guanding Version to the Yijing Version reflects the entire trajectory of Sanskrit–Chinese contact, from collision to Sinicization, from uncertainty to certainty, and from inaccuracy to precision:

a. In the Guanding Version translated by Śrīmitra of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (or Huijian of the Liu Song Dynasty), the translators avoided directly translating the foreign concept “ojas”. The phrase “ojaḥ apahṛ“ was rendered in three different ways: “舐頭 shìtóu” (licking the head), “中害 zhònghài” (harming), and “得便 débiàn” (taking advantage of). “舐頭 shìtóu” (licking the head) uses a specific action to denote the concept, while “中害 zhònghài” (harming) and “得便 débiàn” (taking advantage of) adopt broad generalizations. The inconsistency in translation may stem from the translators’ initial encounter with “ojas”, a foreign concept for which they could not find an appropriate Chinese term, thus forcing them to translate “ojaḥ apahṛ” as a whole. The three different renderings suggest the translators were repeatedly deliberating and hesitant, having not yet settled on a unified translation.

b. In the Sui Dynasty, Dharmagupta translated “ojas” as “魂魄 húnpò” (soul) and “ojaḥ apahṛ“ as “奪魂魄 duó húnpò” (robbing the soul) or “害魂魄 hài húnpò” (harming the soul). The translations were relatively consistent, with only slight variations in verbs but essentially identical meanings.

c. In the Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang translated “ojas” as “精氣 jīngqì” (vital energy) and consistently translated “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “奪精氣 duó jīngqì” (robbing vital energy), embodying his pursuit of accuracy in terminological translation.

d. Yijing of the Tang Dynasty compared various versions and ultimately inherited Xuanzang’s translation, affirming its validity. By this point, “精氣 jīngqì” (vital energy) prevailed over “魂魄 húnpò” (soul) as the standard translation for “ojas”, followed in modern translations of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Sūtra.

Then, why was “舐頭 shìtóu” (lickingthe head) replaced by “奪/害魂魄 duó/hài húnpò” (robbing/harming the soul) and “奪精氣 duó jīngqì” (robbing vital energy)? “Licking the head” vividly depicts the action of ghosts harming people and aligns with the ancient understanding of ghosts sucking human vital energy. Why was it eliminated in the lexical competition15? This should be attributed to a change in translation methods. “舐頭 shìtóu” (licking the head) is a metonymic translation16, which is obscure and perplexing due to its unclear meaning. In contrast “奪/害魂魄 duó/hài húnpò” (robbing/harming the soul) and “奪精氣 duó jīngqì” (robbing vital energy) are literal translations. Dharmagupta and Xuanzang chose a literal translation that was more faithful to the original text, which constitutes the main reason for the replacement of “舐頭 shìtóu”.

Why was “魂魄 húnpò” replaced by “精氣 jīngqì (vital energy)”? Both “魂 hún” and “魄 pò” can denote human vitality or spirit, and their combined term “魂魄 húnpò” might seem suitable as a translation for “ojas”. However, the most common meaning of “魂魄 húnpò” is “soul,” which diverges from the concept of “ojas”. In the scriptural contexts cited above, the soul-related meaning cannot be excluded, causing interpretive confusion. It is also possible that Dharmagupta misunderstood “ojas” as the human soul when translating.

By contrast, although “精氣 jīngqì (vital energy)” is polysemous, when referring to humans, it specifically denotes spiritual vitality or kidney essence—concepts highly similar to “ojas”. In the cited contexts, it avoids ambiguity. Thus, Xuanzang’s choice to replace “魂魄 húnpò” with “精氣 jīngqì” for translating “ojas” was extremely precise. This translation was endorsed by Yijing and has been used to this day.

3. The Two Semantic Meanings of “舐頭” (Licking the Head) in Buddhist Scriptures

Through the above-mentioned Sanskrit-Chinese collation and collation of different translations, it can be known that “舐頭 shìtóu “ (licking the head) in the Guanding Sūtra conveys the meaning of robbing vital energy.

In addition, “舐頭 shìtóu” (licking the head) was also used to describe the broad and long tongue appearance of a Cakravartin king or the Buddha17.

In the Xingqi Xing Jing (Sūtra of Arising)18, Volume 2: 火鬘於是說偈問曰：“所聞三十二，大士之相好，於此人中尊，唯不覩二事。豈有丈夫體，猶如馬藏不？寧有廣長舌，覆面舐頭不？願為吐舌示，令我決狐疑。我見乃當知，如經所載不？”於是，迦葉如來便出廣長舌相，以覆其面上及肉髻，並覆兩耳，七過舐頭，縮舌入口，色光出照大千世界，蔽日月明，乃至阿迦膩吒天光，還遶身七匝，從頂上入。 Huǒmán yúshì shuō jì wèn yuē：“suǒwén sānshíèr, dàshì zhī xiānghǎo, yúcǐ rénzhōngzūn, wéi bù dǔ èr shì.Qǐyǒu zhàngfūtǐ, yóurú mǎcáng bù？Nìngyǒu guǎngchángshé, fùmiàn shìtóu bù？Yuàn wèi tǔshé shì, lìngwǒ jué húyí. Wǒ jiàn nǎi dāngzhī, rújīng suǒzài bù？”Yúshì, Jiāyè Rúlái biàn chū guǎngchángshéxiàng, yǐ fù qí miànshàng jí ròujì, bìng fù liǎngěr, qī guò shìtóu, suōshé rùkǒu, sèguāng chūzhào dàqiānshìjiè, bì rìyuè míng, nǎi zhì ājiānìzhàtiān guāng, hái rào shēn qī zā, cóng dǐngshàng rù. [Huǒmán then asked in a gāthā: “I have heard of the thirty-two excellent marks of a great being. For this honorable one among humans, I only fail to see two things. Does he have a body like a horse’s hidden organ? Does he have a broad and long tongue that can cover his face and lick his head? Please stick out your tongue to show me and resolve my doubts. Only when I see it will I know if it matches the sūtras.” Then the Tathāgata Kāśyapa extended his broad and long tongue, covering his face, meat usṇīṣa, and both ears, licking his head seven times. He retracted his tongue into his mouth, and colored light radiated, illuminating the great thousand-world system, outshining the sun and moon, even the light of Agniṣṭha, circling his body seven times before entering through the top of his head.] (04/173a).

This passage is cited in two encyclopedias: Jinglü Yixiang (Strange Images from Sūtras and Vinaya) by Bao Chang of the Liang Dynasty, Volume 41 (53/219a), and Fayuan Zhulin (Forest of Dharma Sources) by Daoshi of the Tang Dynasty, Volume 59 (53/734a). Here, “licking the head” clearly describes the Buddha’s tongue being long enough to lick the top of his head19. Although such uses of “licking the head” are rare and may arouse doubts about its reliability, “licking the ears” can support its existence, as seen in the following examples:

(1) 佛知其意，即為出舌，先舐左耳，却舐右耳，復舐髮際，以舌覆面，徐引舌下。 Fó zhī qí yì, jí wèi chū shé, xiān shì zuǒ ěr, què shì yòu ěr, fù shì fà jì, yǐ shé fù miàn, xú yǐn shé xià. [Knowing his intention, the Buddha extended his tongue: first licking the left ear, then the right ear, followed by the hairline, covering the face with the tongue, and slowly retracting it.] (Sūtra on the Buddha Enlightening the Brahmin Aba, Zhi Qian, Three Kingdoms Wu Dynasty, 01/263b).

(2) 佛到即坐，行水下食，於是世尊觀察眾心，應有度者即出舌覆面舐耳，放大光明照一城內，即以梵聲說偈呪願……Fó dào jí zuò, xíng shuǐ xià shí, yúshì shìzūn guānchá zhòngxīn, yīng yǒu dùzhě jí chūshé fùmiàn shìěr, fàng dà guāngmíng zhào yī chéng nèi, jí yǐ fànshēng shuō jì zhòu yuàn…… [When the Buddha arrived and took his seat, he performed his ablutions and then partook of the meal. The World-Honored One then observed the minds of the assembly, and for those ready to be saved, he extended his tongue to cover his face and lick his ears, emitting a great light that illuminated the entire city. He then spoke verses of blessings in the Brahmic voice…] (“Chapter 20 on Cherishing the Body”, Dharmapada Analogy Sūtra, Volume 3, Fa Ju and Fa Li, Western Jin Dynasty, 04/593c).

(3) 聞有三十二，大人之相貌，今不見二相，相好為具不？頗有陰馬藏，貞潔不婬乎？豈有廣長舌，舐耳覆面乎？為我現其相，斷諸狐疑結，陰馬及舌相，唯願欲見之。 Wén yǒu sānshíèr, dàrén zhī xiàngmào, jīn bù jiàn èr xiàng, xiànghǎo wéi jù bù？Pō yǒu yīnmǎcáng, zhēnjié bù yín hū？Qǐ yǒu guǎngchángshé, shìěr fùmiàn hū？Wèi wǒ xiàn qí xiàng, duàn zhū húyí jié, yīnmǎ jí shéxiàng, wéi yuàn yù jiàn zhī. [I have heard of the thirty-two marks of a great person, but now I do not see two of these marks. Are all the auspicious marks complete? Does he have the hidden male organ, chaste and free from lust? Does he have a broad and long tongue that can lick his ears and cover his face? Please reveal these marks to me, to break the knots of my doubts. I wish to see both the hidden male organ and the tongue mark.] (Ekottarāgama, Volume 38, Gautama Saṅghadeva, Eastern Jin Dynasty, 02/758a-b).

(4) 是時，燈光佛復出廣長舌，左右舐耳，放大光明，還從頂上入。 Shìshí, dēngguāngfó fù chū guǎngchángshé, zuǒyòu shìěr, fàng dà guāngmíng, huán cóng dǐngshàng rù. [At that time, the Buddha Dipankara again extended his broad and long tongue, licking his left and right ears, emitting a great light that re-entered through the top of his head.] (Ekottarāgama, Volume 38, Gautama Saṅghadeva, Eastern Jin Dynasty, 02/758b).

(5) 爾時，施羅梵志即以偈問曰：“吾聞三十二，大人之相好，今不見二相，竟為在何所？貞潔陰馬藏，其相甚難喻，頗有廣長舌，舐耳覆面不？願出廣長舌，使我無狐疑，又使我見之，永無疑結網。” Ěrshí, shīluó fànzhì jí yǐ jì wèn yuē：“Wú wén sānshíèr, dàrén zhī xiànghǎo, jīn bù jiàn èr xiàng, jìng wèi zài hésuǒ？Zhēnjié yīnmǎ cáng, qí xiàng shèn nán yù, pō yǒu guǎngchángshé, shìěr fùmiàn bù？Yuàn chū guǎngchángshé, shǐ wǒ wú húyí, yòu shǐ wǒ jiàn zhī, yǒng wú yíjié wǎng.” [Then the Brahmin Śra asked in a gāthā: “I have heard of the thirty-two excellent marks of a great being, but now I do not see two of them. Where exactly are they? The hidden male organ, a chaste mark beyond metaphor—does he have a broad and long tongue that can lick his ears and cover his face? Please extend your broad long tongue to dispel my doubts, so that seeing it, I may be forever free from the net of misgivings.”] (Ekottarāgama, Volume 46, Gautama Saṅghadeva, Eastern Jin Dynasty, 02/799c).

(6) 爾時，世尊即吐舌，左右舐耳，還復縮之。 Ěrshí，shìzūn jí tǔshé，zuǒyòu shìěr，hái fù suō zhī。 [Then the World-Honored One extended his tongue, licking his left and right ears, before retracting it again.] (Ekottarāgama, Volume 47, Gautama Saṅghadeva, Eastern Jin Dynasty, 02/799c).

The Dīrgha Āgama, Volume 1, translated jointly by Buddhayasas and Zhu Fonian during the Later Qin Dynasty, also contains the phrase “licking the left and right ears” (01/5b). Volume 13 mentions “licking the ears and cover the face” (01/87b, 87c). Zhu Fonian’s Sūtra on the Bodhisattva’s Descent from Tuṣita Heaven into His Mother’s Womb and His Universal Teachings, Volume 7, “Chapter 35 on The Dharma Abides,” also includes “licking the left and right ears” (12/1057a). Since “licking the ears” appears in Buddhist sūtras from the Wei and Jin periods, the existence of “licking the head” during that time cannot be easily dismissed.

The term “licking the head” is used on the one hand to describe the Buddha’s Broad and Long Tongue Mark, a highly honorable expression, and on the other hand to depict the harmful actions of evil ghosts. The inverted emotional connotations of these two usages are detrimental to expressing respect for the Buddha’s Thirty-two Auspicious Marks. It is likely that both the uncommonness of the action itself and the emotional conflict between the two meanings of “licking the head” result in the term being extremely infrequent in use20:

• “舐頭 Shìtóu (licking the head)” as a description of the Buddha’s auspicious marks appears only in the Xingqi Xing Jing (Sūtra of Arising), Jinglü Yixiang (Strange Images from Sūtras and Vinaya), and Fayuan Zhulin (Forest of Dharma Sources) cited above, with a total frequency of five instances in the Buddhist canon.
• “惡鬼舐其頭 Èguǐ shì qí tóu (evil ghost licking the head)” as a description of demons robbing vital energy is found only in the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra (21/534c) and the anonymous Longshu Wuming Lun (Nāgārjuna’s Treatise on the Five Sciences) (21/958a), with a total frequency of two instances.

In summary, the term “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)” appears very rarely in Buddhist Sūtras.

Although the term “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)” as a translated expression remained obscure in Buddhist sūtras, it did not prevent it from being accepted and propagated in Chinese through another pathway.

4. From “Evil Ghosts Licking the Head” in Buddhist Sūtras to “Ghosts Licking/Shaving the Head” in Medical Classics

Dictionary works such as Shuowen Jiezi (Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters) and Shiming (Explaining Names), include characters like “禿 tū” (baldness), “頹 tuí” (decadence), and “顅 qiān” (bald scalp), indicating that hair loss was already a subject of concern at the time. In medical canons of the Wei, Jin, and Southern–Northern Dynasties, terms such as “禿瘡 tūchuāng” (bald sore), “赤禿 chìtū” (red baldness), “白禿 báitū” (white baldness), “禿敗瘡 tūbàichuāng” (decaying bald sore), and “白頹瘡 báituíchuāng” (white decadent sore) began to appear, but they were only regarded as symptoms of other diseases. It was not until the Sui and Tang dynasties that hair loss was recognized as an independent disease. (Wang and Wu 2021) When was “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking head) first documented as a medical term for hair loss?

A search in the “Erudition Chinese Ancient Books Database”21 using “鬼舐頭 (ghost licking the head)” as the keyword, with no restrictions on era or category, yielded 14 books and 29 examples, all of which appear only in medical classics and cat-related records. The syndrome of “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking the head) first emerged in the Sui Dynasty’s Zhu Bing Yuan Hou Lun (Treatise on the Causes and Symptoms of Various Diseases) and was documented in medical texts of the Tang, Song, Ming, and Qing dynasties.

(1) 鬼舐頭候：人有風邪在於頭，有偏虛處則髮禿落，肌肉枯死，或如錢大，或如指大，髮不生，亦不癢，故謂之鬼舐頭。 Guǐshìtóu hòu: Rén yǒu fēngxié zàiyú tóu, yǒu piānxū chù zé fà tūluò, jīròu kūsǐ, huò rú qián dà, huò rú zhǐ dà, fà bù shēng, yì bù yǎng, gù wèi zhī guǐshìtóu. [Ghost Licking the Head Syndrome: When wind-evil lodges in the head and there is a partial deficiency, hair falls out, the muscles wither, forming patches the size of a coin or a finger. The hair does not regrow, and there is no itching, hence the term “ghost licking the head.”] (Treatise on the Causes and Symptoms of Various Diseases, Volume 27, Chao Yuanfang, Sui Dynasty) (Chao 2018).

(2) 治鬼舐頭方：燒貓兒屎，以臘月豬脂和，傅上。 Zhì guǐshìtóu fāng: Shāo māor shǐ, yǐ làyuè zhūzhī huò, fù shàng. [Prescription for Ghost Licking the Head: Burn cat feces, mix with pig fat from the twelfth lunar month, and apply topically.] (Emergency Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Gold, Volume 13, Sun Simiao, Tang Dynasty) (Sun 2010).

(3) 鬼舐頭方二首：千金療鬼舐頭方，燒貓屎灰，以臘月豬脂和，傅之；又方，取赤塼末，以蒜擣和，傅之。 Guǐshìtóu fāng èr shǒu: Qiānjīn liáo guǐshìtóu fāng: Shāo māoshǐ huī, yǐ làyuè zhūzhī huò, fù zhī; Yòu fāng: Qǔ chìzhuān mò, yǐ suàn dǎo huò, fù zhī. [Two Prescriptions for Ghost Licking the Head: The Thousand Gold Prescriptions remedy for ghost licking the head: burn cat feces to ash, mix with twelfth-month pig fat, and apply; another prescription: take red brick powder, mix with mashed garlic, and apply.] (Medical Secrets from the Imperial Library, Volume 19, Wang Tao, Tang Dynasty) (T. Wang 2013).

(4) 又方，治鬼舐頭，取（貓）兒糞，臘月豬脂和，傅。 Yòu fāng, zhì guǐshìtóu, qǔ (māo) ér fèn, làyuè zhūzhī huò, fù. [Another prescription for ghost licking the head: take cat feces, mix with twelfth-month pig fat, and apply.] (Revised Zhenghe Classified Materia Medica with Classics and Histories, Tang Shenwei, Song Dynasty) (Tang 2014).

(5) 鬼舐頭瘡，貓兒毛燒灰，膏和，傅之……鬼舐頭禿，貓兒屎燒灰，臘豬脂和，傅之。 Guǐshìtóu chuāng, māor máo shāo huī, gāo huò, fù zhī…… Guǐshìtóu tū, māor shǐ shāo huī, là zhūzhī huò, fù zhī. [For ghost licking head sores, burn cat hair to ash, mix with ointment, and apply… For ghost licking head baldness, burn cat feces to ash, mix with twelfth-month pig fat, and apply.] (Compendium of Materia Medica, Volume 51, Upper Section, Li Shizhen, Ming Dynasty) (Li 2016).

(6) 毛髮癆，血枯血乾，骨蒸不治，則毛髮禿落而不生，古云鬼舐頭。服人參養榮湯或髪生地黄丸。 Máofà láo, xuèkū xuègān, gǔzhēng bù zhì, zé máofà tūluò ér bù shēng, gǔ yún guǐshìtóu. Fú rénshēn yǎngróng tāng huò fàshēng dìhuáng wán. [Hair Consumption: When blood is withered and dried, and bone steaming is untreated, hair falls out and does not regrow, known anciently as “ghost licking the head”. Take Ginseng Nutritive Decoction or Hair-Generating Rehmannia Pill.] (Quick Method for Disease Diagnosis, Volume 3, Miao Cunji, Ming Dynasty) (Miao 2014).

Example 1 analyzes the symptoms of “ghost licking the head”, examples 2 to 5 introduce treatment methods, and example 6 both analyzes the disease and prescribes a formula. Since the ancients believed that burning cat hair to ashes could treat “ghost licking head sores,” works on cats from the Qing Dynasty’s, such as Cat Garden and Cat Chronicles, also record “ghost licking the head”:

(7) 又云，貓毛燒灰，膏和，治鬼舐頭瘡。 Yòu yún, māomáo shāo huī, gāo huò, zhì guǐshìtóu chuāng. [It is also said that burning cat hair to ash and mixing it with ointment, can treat “ghost licking head sores”.] (Cat Garden, Volume 1, Huang Han, Qing Dynasty) (H. Huang 2018).

(8) 本草拾遺：鬼舐頭瘡，貓兒毛燒灰，膏和，傅之。 Běncǎo Shíyí: Guǐshìtóu chuāng, māor máo shāo huī, gāo huò, fù zhī. [Supplements to the Materia Medica: For “ghost licking head sores”, burn cat hair to ash, mix with ointment, and apply.] (Cat Chronicles, Volume 1, Wang Chutong, Qing Dynasty) (C. Wang 2021).

Regarding hair loss symptoms, indigenous Chinese medical terminology already existed. If a new hair loss disease was identified or an existing one reinterpreted, new terms should logically have been constructed using established morphemes like “禿” (baldness), “頹” (decay), or “顅” (bald scalp). Why then did “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking the head) suddenly appear in Sui Dynasty medical texts? If no internal Chinese etymology can explain this, the author suggests an external origin: the translation of the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra prompted the phrase “惡鬼舐（其）頭” (evil ghost licking the head), which was abbreviated to “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking the head) in popular transmission. This hypothesis is supported by four reasons:

a. Chronological precedence: Whether dated to the Eastern Jin or Liu Song period, the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra predates the Sui Dynasty’s Treatise on the Causes and Symptoms of Various Diseases.

b. Widespread circulation: As recorded in Seng You’s Collection of Records of the Translation of the Tripiṭaka (55/39a), “This sūtra includes a method for extending life, hence its universal prevalence.” The sūtra’s wide religious dissemination made “evil ghost licking the head” a familiar phrase.

c. Textual content: The sūtra states that reciting Bhaiṣajyaguru’s name cures diseases, leading Buddhists and laypeople to regard the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha as a healer and the sūtra as a medical canon. This made “evil ghost licking the head” familiar to medical practitioners, creating conditions for associating it with alopecia areata.

d. Pathological interpretation: Alopecia areata causes asymptomatic, irregular hair loss. Ancient people often attributed inexplicable phenomena to ghosts—those familiar with the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra linked “evil ghost licking the head” to hair loss, reasoning that ghosts sucking vital energy caused baldness. Thus, “ghost licking the head” naturally evolved from its Buddhist meaning (“robbing vital energy”) to denote a hair loss syndrome.

The term “ghost licking the head” to refer to alopecia areata not only vividly conveys people’s perception of alopecia but also aligns with the ancient explanation of its cause, thus spreading widely and being recorded in medical canons. The above speculation is supported by medical texts. For example, in the Xiao’er Weisheng Zong Wei Lun Fang (Comprehensive Treatise on Children’s Health) of the Song Dynasty, Volume 18, “Bald Sore” states: “Another type is commonly called ‘ghost licking the head.’ When a child has a head sore licked by ghosts at night, it spreads across the head with red scabs, or is said to cause ‘red baldness’.” (Anonymous 1990) Similar to the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra, this also refers to ghosts licking the head, further illustrating the close connection between the two. The term “commonly called” indicates that “ghost licking the head” is a folk term. Precisely due to the underdevelopment of ancient medicine and the cognitive limitations of the ancients, it was believed that certain hair loss was caused by ghosts licking the head, which formed the cognitive basis for the spread and acceptance of the term “ghost licking the head”.

Since “ghost shaving the head” is currently in common use among the people, when did “ghost licking the head” change to “ghost shaving the head”? A search in the ancient books database using “ghost shaving the head” as the keyword yielded only one example, which is from the entry “Youfeng (Oil Wind)” in Yizong Jinjian (Golden Mirror of Medical Orthodoxy), compiled in the 7th year of the Qianlong reign of the Qing Dynasty (1742): 此證毛髮乾焦，成片脫落，皮紅光亮，癢如蟲行。俗名鬼剃頭，由毛孔開張，邪風乘虛襲入以致風盛燥血，不能榮養毛髮。Cǐ zhèng máofà gānjiāo，chéng piàn tuōluò，pí hóng guāngliàng，yǎng rú chóng xíng。súmíng guǐtìtóu，yóu máokǒng kāizhāng，xiéfēng chéng xū xírù yǐzhì fēngshèng zàoxuè，bù néng róngyǎng máofà。“This syndrome features dry and brittle hair, patchy hair loss, red and shiny skin, and itching like insects crawling. Commonly known as ‘ghost shaving the head,’ it is caused by wind pathogens invading through open pores, leading to excessive wind and dry blood that cannot nourish the hair.” (Q. Wu 2021) This marks the completion of the ancient-to-modern evolution of the common name for alopecia areata.

Why was “ghost licking the head” changed to “ghost shaving the head”? The probable reason is that after Xuanzang’s translation of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra gradually replaced the Guanding version, “evil ghost licking the head” faded into obscurity as a historical term, and the connection between “ghost licking the head” in medical canons and “evil ghost licking the head” in Buddhist sūtras was forgotten. Later generations, unfamiliar with “licking the head,” replaced it with the more common “shaving the head.” This single-character change also reflects a reanalysis of the cause:

• “Ghost licking the head” named the disease by its cause, implying that ghosts sucking vital energy through licking caused hair loss;
• “Ghost shaving the head” named it by its result, describing chaotic hair loss as if shaved by ghosts22, which has no relation to vital energy and severs the link to the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra.

“Illness caused by ghosts and spirits” has historical roots in China. Is “鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu (ghost licking the head)” an indigenous medical term? With this question, the author searched the ancient books database—without restrictions on era or category—using “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)” as the keyword. A total of 16 books and 32 example sentences were retrieved. Excluding the overlapping 14 books and 29 example sentences related to “鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu (ghost licking the head)”, only 1 example from the Buddhist scripture Jinglü Yixiang (Strange Images from Sūtras and Vinaya) and 2 examples from Fayuan Zhulin (Forest of Dharma Sources) remain. These three examples are copies of the Xingqi Xing Jing (Sūtra of Arising), which was written before the Liang Dynasty.

Thus, before the appearance of “ghost licking the head” in medical classics, “licking the head” and “ghost licking the head” only appeared in Buddhist scriptures. Therefore, the dissemination path of “ghost licking the head” is from Buddhist scriptures to medical classics.

To clarify the timeline of the dissemination from “evil ghosts licking the head” in Buddhist scriptures to “ghost licking the head” and “ghost shaving the head” in medical classics, the following list specifies the translation or compilation dates of the relevant works (see

Table 1. Timeline of the Dissemination from “Evil Ghosts Licking the Head” in Buddhist Scriptures to “Ghost Licking the Head” and “Ghost Shaving the Head” in Medical Classics.

Time	Work	Words/Phrases
Yuan Emperor period of Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–322) /First year of the Daming era, Liu Song dynasty (457)	Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka)	惡鬼舐其頭 èguǐ shì qí tóu (evil ghost licking the head)
Sixth year of the Daye era, Sui dynasty (610)	Zhu Bing Yuan Hou Lun(Treatise on the Causes and Symptoms of Various Diseases)	鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu (ghost licking the head)
Seventh year of the Qianlong era, Qing dynasty (1742)	Yi Zong Jin Jian (Golden Mirror of Medical Orthodoxy)	鬼剃頭 guǐtìtóu (ghost shaving the head)

).

5. Conclusions

Based on the above Sanskrit–Chinese textual comparisons, analyses of different translations of the same sūtra, and textual research on the origin of “ghost licking/shaving the head,” the following conclusions can be drawn:

5.1. The Translation Trajectory of “ojas”

If the aforementioned differences between the Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka) and other versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra result from the translation of the foreign concept “ojas” (as assumed in the analysis above), this indicates that the translation of the foreign concept “ojas” went through three processes: The first time, “ojas” was not translated independently, and the phrase “ojaḥ apahṛ” was integrally translated as “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)”, “中害 zhònghài (harming)”, and “得便 débiàn (taking advantage of)”. The second time, “ojas” was translated as “魂魄 húnpò (soul/spirit)”. The third and fourth times, “ojas” was translated as “精氣 jīngqì (vital energy)”. This indicates that the accurate translation of foreign concepts sometimes undergoes a historical process of deliberation, screening, and refinement.

“Ojas” is a polysemous concept unique to India. Early translators, unable to find an existing Chinese term that precisely corresponded to it, avoided the difficulty of translating “ojas” individually and instead rendered “ojaḥ apahṛ” as a whole, showing deliberation and hesitation in the process. The newly coined term “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)”, though constructed using existing morphemes, strays far from their original meanings23; without collation with the Sanskrit original or other translations, its accurate meaning cannot be inferred from its literal sense. The terms “中害 zhònghài (harming)” and “得便 débiàn (taking advantage of)”, on the other hand, have overly broad semantics. Thus, none of the three can accurately and directly convey the original Sanskrit meaning—all of which align with the characteristics of early foreign-translated Buddhist scriptures.

If the aforementioned differences between the Guanding Sūtra and other versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra are not due to the translation of the foreign concept “ojas”—that is, if the Sanskrit Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra on which the Guanding Sūtra was based did not contain the term “ojas,” and expressions like “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head),” “中害 zhònghài (harming),” and “得便 débiàn (taking advantage of)” are literal translations of the original Sanskrit text—then there is a difficulty with the hypothesis that later Sanskrit versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra unified these expressions into “ojas apahṛ”: “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)”, “中害 zhònghài (harming)”, and “得便 débiàn (taking advantage of)” are not religious terms, so why would they need to be unified? Even if unification was necessary, why would they be unified into a significantly different expression like “ojas apahṛ” rather than any one of “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)”, “中害 zhònghài (harming)”, or “得便 débiàn (taking advantage of)”, or any of their synonymous expressions? Therefore, the possibility of this hypothesis holding true is very small.

5.2. The Authenticity of Guanding Sūtra

Semantically, there are significant gaps between “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)”, “中害 zhònghài (harming)”, “得便 débiàn (taking advantage of)”, “奪/害魂魄 duó/hài húnpò (robbing/harming the soul)”, and “奪精氣 duó jīngqì (robbing the vital energy)”. Without Sanskrit–Chinese textual collation or comparison of different translations, and without taking “ojaḥ apahṛ” as the link, it is impossible to establish a synonymous relationship between these expressions.

However, assuming that the Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka) is a translated scripture from foreign sources, the aforementioned semantic differences can be reasonably explained. They precisely reflect the historical process of translating the foreign concept “ojaḥ (apahṛ)”—a process that evolved from inconsistency to uniformity, from imprecision to precision, and from non-literal translation to literal translation. Meanwhile, the theory that it is a foreign-translated scripture also helps explain the opportunity or context for the emergence of the new phrase “惡鬼舐頭 èguǐ shìtóu” (evil ghost licking the head).

If we assume that the Guanding Sūtra was an indigenous apocryphal text that was translated into Sanskrit and then retranslated back into Chinese, the terms “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)”, “中害 zhònghài (harming)”, and “得便 débiàn (taking advantage of)” should have been reflected in the Sanskrit version, as well as in the translations by Dharmagupta, Xuanzang, or Yijing. If these three terms had been unified as “ojas apahṛ” either during their translation into Sanskrit or in the process of dissemination, it would still be impossible to explain why they were unified into an expression with such a significant semantic divergence, rather than being standardized into one of the three terms themselves—”舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)”, “中害 zhònghài (harming)”, or “得便 débiàn (taking advantage of)”—or into any of their synonymous expressions. Therefore, the theory that the Guanding Sūtra is an indigenous apocryphal text cannot reasonably account for the semantic gaps between these terms.

Thus, the translation trajectory of “ojaḥ (apahṛ)” and the emergence of the new phrase “惡鬼舐頭 èguǐ shìtóu (evil ghosts licking the head)” may serve as evidence supporting the theory that the Guanding Sūtra is a translated scripture from foreign sources.

5.3. Licking the Head—Ghost Licking the Head—Ghost Shaving the Head

The Sinicization of Buddhist-related terms generally requires an extremely high frequency of use, such that the term overflows from Buddhist canons into Chinese literature. However, the Sinicization of “舐頭 shìtóu (licking the head)” represents an exception. With minimal usage in Buddhist sūtras, this term was outcompeted by “奪精氣 duó jīngqì (robbing vital energy)” in the translation rivalry. Paradoxically, while it faded in Buddhist canons, it thrived in medical texts and popular folklore. The shift from “惡鬼舐頭 èguǐ shìtóu (evil ghost licking the head)” in Buddhist sūtras to “鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu (ghost licking the head)” in medical canons reflects a unique pattern of Sinicization for Buddhist-related terms, shaped by the following conditions:

• Objective Circulation: The Buddhist sūtra Guanding Bachuguozui Shengsidedu Jing (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka for Removing Sins and Attaining Deliverance from Birth and Death) enjoyed wide dissemination, making “惡鬼舐頭 èguǐ shìtóu (evil ghost licking the head)” a familiar phrase among the public.
• Lexical Mechanism: Sinicization occurred through abbreviation, contracting “惡鬼舐頭 èguǐ shìtóu (evil ghost licking the head)” to “鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu (ghost licking the head)”.
• Cognitive Mechanism: “Ghost licking the head” aligned with ancient perceptions of alopecia areata symptoms, resonating with folk beliefs about supernatural causes.
• Semantic Extension: The term evolved from denoting “ghosts licking the head to rob vital energy” to signifying “hair loss caused by ghosts licking the head to absorb vital energy”.

The replacement of “ghost licking the head” with “ghost shaving the head” occurred because the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra was superseded by Xuanzang’s version, causing “ghost licking the head” to fade from recognition. As a result, it was replaced by “ghost shaving the head,” shifting the naming rationale from a metonymic expression referring to the pathogenic cause to a metaphorical description of hair loss symptoms.

Given the significance of the Buddhist Sūtra in which “舐頭 shìtóu” (licking the head) appears and the uniqueness of its meaning, existing Buddhist dictionaries should include this term, with explanations of its two usages and meanings: Describing the broad and long tongue of a Cakravartin king or the Buddha, denoting the literal act of the tongue licking the top of the head; Depicting the harmful actions of evil ghosts, where the literal meaning is metonymically used to signify robbing human vital energy (ojas). The Hanyu Da Cidian (Grand Chinese Dictionary) only includes “鬼剃頭 guǐtìtóu” (ghost shaving the head) but omits “鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu” (ghost licking the head). It should supplement “鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu” and explain that “鬼剃頭 guǐtìtóu” evolved from “鬼舐頭 guǐshìtóu”, which originates from the phrase “惡鬼舐其頭 èguǐ shì qí tóu” (evil ghost licking the head) in the Buddhist text Guanding Bachu Guozui Shengsi Dedu Jing (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka for Removing Sins and Attaining Deliverance from Birth and Death). Lexicographers should attach sufficient importance to this when compiling dictionaries.

From India to China, and from Buddhist scriptures to medical classics, the Sinicization of “ojas” and the emergence and evolution of “鬼舐/剃頭 guǐshì/tìtóu” (ghost licking/shaving the head) epitomize the historical cultural exchange and mutual enlightenment between the Chinese and Indian civilizations.