Environments

15 pages, 2299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Picloram and Clopyralid on Ocimum Basilicum (Basil)—A Study of the Uptake, Distribution and Translocation of Synthetic Auxins from Soil to Plant

by Roxana Elena Scutariu, Valentina Andreea Petre, Alina Tatarus, Diana Maria Puiu and Florentina Laura Chiriac

Environments 2025, 12(5), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050144 - 29 Apr 2025

Abstract

The current study monitored the degree of uptake, distribution, bioaccumulation, and translocation of synthetic auxins (Picloram and Clopyralid) in medicinal plants (Basil). The study’s main objectives were the development and optimization of an analytical method for the identification and quantification of auxins, an [...] Read more.

The current study monitored the degree of uptake, distribution, bioaccumulation, and translocation of synthetic auxins (Picloram and Clopyralid) in medicinal plants (Basil). The study’s main objectives were the development and optimization of an analytical method for the identification and quantification of auxins, an optimized method of auxins extraction from soil and plant samples, and, based on the analytical results obtained, the evaluation of bioaccumulation and translocation capacity. To evaluate the effects produced by synthetic auxins on the Basil plant, three experiments were carried out in parallel (Basil-Clopyralid, Basil-Picloram, and Basil-Clopyralid-Picloram) for 15 days, where the plant was permanently exposed to a constant concentration of auxins. The study results showed that in the individual tests and the test carried out in the mixture, the highest concentration was recorded for Clopyralid in the Basil leaves, 16 µg/kg d.w., respectively, 22 µg/kg d.w. The antagonist, Picloram, was primarily detected in the plant’s roots, up to 7.2 µg/kg d.w. Therefore, Picloram favors the accumulation of Clopyralid in high percentages in all plant organs. The bioconcentration factors (BCF) and translocation factors (TF) calculation showed values lower than 1, indicating that Basil is an excluder and has no potential for phytoremediation. Full article

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21 pages, 2891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method Validation: Extraction of Microplastics from Organic Fertilisers

by Delphine Ciréderf Boulant, Mathilde Simon, Anthony Magueresse, Nicolas Mortas, Nicolas Thévenin, Valérie Yeuch, Gaël Durand, Adrien Caurant, Sophie Goulitquer, Aurélie Even, Solenne Maisonnat, Zhazira Yesbergenova-Cuny, Isabelle Deportes, Stéphane Bruzaud and Mikaël Kedzierski

Environments 2025, 12(5), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050143 - 26 Apr 2025

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Abstract

It has been demonstrated that organic fertilisers could be a source of microplastics (MPs) in agricultural soils. These organic fertilisers comprise a diverse array of matrices including organic waste and by-products. Currently, there is no established methodology for the extraction of MP from [...] Read more.

It has been demonstrated that organic fertilisers could be a source of microplastics (MPs) in agricultural soils. These organic fertilisers comprise a diverse array of matrices including organic waste and by-products. Currently, there is no established methodology for the extraction of MP from these matrices. The present article aims to validate a standardised protocol for the extraction of MPs from a diverse range of complex, organic-rich samples. The protocol has been developed to ensure a high recovery of MPs, to preserve their integrity, and to eliminate organic particles that interfere with FTIR analyses. Spiked MPs sized 315–5000 µm were subjected to a two-step process involving chemical digestion (H₂O₂, 30% (w/v), 53 °C) and density separation (NaI, >1.60 g·cm⁻³). This resulted in a mean extraction rate exceeding 95%, with undigested matter remaining below 5%. No evidence of fragmentation was observed. Furthermore, the chemical nature of spiked microplastics is still perfectly interpretable from the FTIR spectra despite the different chemical treatments undergone. These findings thus validate the method for the microplastic range 315–5000 µm. However, a new method for reanalysing the project’s data produced contrasting results, suggesting a significant drop in recovery rates for size ranges below 250 µm. This reanalysis approach constitutes the second innovation of this protocol, and enables a more critical analysis of the results obtained in publications on microplastics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Plastic Contamination)

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22 pages, 3707 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges in Transitioning to a Circular Economy: A Spatial Analysis of Socioeconomic Factors Affecting the Adoption of the Deposit-Return System

by Amelia Laura Ile, Anita Denisa Caizer and Alexandru Dragan

Environments 2025, 12(5), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050142 - 26 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The Deposit-Return System for Recyclable Packaging (DRS) has recently been implemented in many countries to improve packaging waste management and support circular economy objectives. However, this mechanism has encountered many difficulties. The present study analyses the effectiveness of the DRS in the first [...] Read more.

The Deposit-Return System for Recyclable Packaging (DRS) has recently been implemented in many countries to improve packaging waste management and support circular economy objectives. However, this mechanism has encountered many difficulties. The present study analyses the effectiveness of the DRS in the first 10 months of its operation in Romania, focusing on the spatial inequalities in recycling behaviour, the socioeconomic factors that influence the level of user participation, and user perceptions of waste management effectiveness. Combining cartographic analysis, socioeconomic indicators correlations, and media sentiment analysis, we discover key barriers to DRS implementation in rural areas, infrastructure limits, and public trust challenges. The results show a correlation between recycling rates and factors such as educational attainment, economic well-being, and urbanisation. The study also points out waste management inefficiencies related to poor infrastructure, costs to retailers, and operational difficulties of the recycling system. To enhance DRS performance, we suggest expanding the collection infrastructure in uncovered areas, providing dedicated financial assistance to retailers, and increasing transparency communication in waste processing outcomes. These findings contribute to discussions on optimising deposit-return schemes, reducing waste generation, and improving recycling efficiency in emerging circular economies. Full article

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20 pages, 1636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Field Comparison of Active and Passive Soil Gas Sampling Techniques for VOC Monitoring at Contaminated Sites

by Raffaella Borrelli, Alessandra Cecconi, Alessandro Oldani, Federico Fuin, Renata Emiliani, Fabrizio Cacciari, Antonella Vecchio, Camilla Lanari, Federico Villani, Guido Bonfedi, Donatella Giacopetti, Renato Baciocchi and Iason Verginelli

Environments 2025, 12(5), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050141 - 26 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This study presented a comprehensive comparison of soil gas sampling methodologies to monitor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at two industrial sites in northern Italy. Utilizing active sampling techniques, such as stainless-steel canisters, vacuum bottles, and sorbent tubes, alongside passive methods like low-density polyethylene [...] Read more.

This study presented a comprehensive comparison of soil gas sampling methodologies to monitor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at two industrial sites in northern Italy. Utilizing active sampling techniques, such as stainless-steel canisters, vacuum bottles, and sorbent tubes, alongside passive methods like low-density polyethylene (PE) membranes, sorbent pens, and Waterloo Membrane Samplers (WMS), the research examines their effectiveness under varied environmental conditions. Five field campaigns were conducted in two areas of the industrial sites characterized by BTEX and chlorinated solvent contamination. The results highlighted that active sampling, while expensive, provides real-time, high-resolution VOC concentration data, often outperforming passive methods for heavier compounds (e.g., hexachlorobutadiene). However, using the active systems in certain campaigns, challenges such as high soil humidity or atmospheric air infiltration were observed, resulting in an underestimation of the soil gas concentrations. Passive sampling systems demonstrated cost-effective, efficient alternatives, offering consistent spatial and temporal coverage. These methods showed alignment with active techniques for lighter compounds (e.g., TCE and BTEX) but faced limitations in sorbent saturation and equilibrium time for heavier VOCs (e.g., hexachlorobutadiene), requiring adjustments in exposure duration to enhance accuracy. PE samplers provided results comparable to active methods, especially for BTEX and TCE, while WMS and sorbent pens exhibited lower sensitivity for certain analytes. This underscores the importance of optimizing sampler configurations and deployment strategies. The findings emphasize the value of integrating active and passive approaches to achieve robust VOC assessments in heterogeneous subsurface environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Pollution and Remediation: Multidisciplinary Approaches to a Global Challenge)

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15 pages, 553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of California’s 2020 Chlorpyrifos Ban on Urinary Biomarkers of Pesticide Exposure in Agricultural Communities

by Bonnie N. Young, Sherry WeMott, Grace Kuiper, Olivia Alvarez, Gregory Dooley, Grant Erlandson, Luis Hernandez Ramirez, Nayamin Martinez, Jesus Mendoza, Casey Quinn, Lorena Sanpedro and Sheryl Magzamen

Environments 2025, 12(5), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050140 - 26 Apr 2025

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Abstract

In 2020, California banned the sale and agricultural use of chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate pesticide (OP) associated with neurotoxicity and other adverse health outcomes. We primarily assessed changes in chlorpyrifos associated with this policy and secondarily explored how other OP exposures changed. The participants [...] Read more.

In 2020, California banned the sale and agricultural use of chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate pesticide (OP) associated with neurotoxicity and other adverse health outcomes. We primarily assessed changes in chlorpyrifos associated with this policy and secondarily explored how other OP exposures changed. The participants were from California’s Central Valley, 18 years or older, and English- or Spanish-speaking. The surveys and urine samples were collected pre-ban (December 2020) and post-ban (February–April 2022). The urine samples were analyzed for a chlorpyrifos-specific metabolite (TCPy), six dialkyl phosphates (DEP, DMTP, DETP, DMDTP, DMP, DEDTP), and total DE and DM. The pre- and post-ban metabolite concentrations were compared via Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and natural log-transformed paired differences in linear mixed effects regression, adjusted for covariates. Forty-nine participants had repeated biomarker data. The mean age of the study population was 46.8 years (SD: 16), 61% female, 67% Spanish-speaking, 100% Hispanic/Latino(a), and 47% had less than a high school education. Six urinary metabolites (TCPy, DEP, DMP, DMTP, total DE and total DM) had sufficient variation for further analysis, while DMDTP, DEDTP, and DETP were undetected. The paired differences in adjusted models showed statistically significant increases in TCPy and DMP associated with the policy change (e.g., TCPy estimated ratio of geometric means: 4.53 (95% CI 2.66, 7.69)) Reductions in metabolites of chlorpyrifos exposure were not observed following California’s chlorpyrifos ban, suggesting ongoing exposure to chlorpyrifos from other sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Challenges and Sustainable Contributions to the One Health Approach)

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17 pages, 2359 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Inhibitory Effects on Aerobic Biomass: Interaction Between Per-/Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) and Traditional Toxic Compounds

by Maria Cristina Collivignarelli, Stefano Bellazzi, Laura Maria Rita Calabria, Marco Baldi and Alessandro Abbà

Environments 2025, 12(5), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050139 - 25 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This work aims to investigate the inhibitory effects of PFAS on activated sludge biomass and compare them to the impact of conventional toxic substances that may be found in wastewater, such as phenol, trichlorophenol, and copper sulphate. Respirometric assays, i.e., batch and continuous [...] Read more.

This work aims to investigate the inhibitory effects of PFAS on activated sludge biomass and compare them to the impact of conventional toxic substances that may be found in wastewater, such as phenol, trichlorophenol, and copper sulphate. Respirometric assays, i.e., batch and continuous oxygen uptake (OUR) tests, were used to evaluate the response of aerobic biomass to various aqueous wastes containing PFAS and traditional inhibitory compounds. The study is divided into many phases, assessing the inhibitory effects of tested pollutants over different time scales: short-term exposure (10 min contact time in batch tests) and medium-term exposure (several hours in continuous tests). The results highlight that while PFAS did not cause acute or medium-term chronic toxicity on biomass (OUR values between 6 and 8 mgDO (gSSV·h)⁻¹), copper sulphate (at a concentration of 166.7 mg L⁻¹) involved irreversible inhibition beyond critical exposure time. Furthermore, the biodegradability of the studied substrates was impacted by the interaction between PFAS and conventional toxic substances, with certain mixtures showing the capacity to lessen inhibitory effects (OUR values between 5 and 20 mgDO (gSSV·h)⁻¹). This study provides new knowledge on the potential inhibitory mechanisms of PFAS and underlines the importance of considering the combined effects of these pollutants with other contaminants. The findings support the development of more effective treatment approaches for PFAS-contaminated wastewater and help in improving the operational strategies of wastewater treatment plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Fate, and Environmental Risk Assessment of Organic Pollutants in Water)

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14 pages, 464 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development and Reliability Testing of a Tool to Assess Women’s Perceptions and Avoidance of Endocrine Disruptors in Personal and Household Products

by Adrianna Trifunovski, Nooshin Khobzi Rotondi, Jennifer Abbass-Dick, Rola Al Ghali and Caroline Barakat

Environments 2025, 12(5), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050138 - 25 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Personal care and household products (PCHPs) often contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that pose health risks, especially for women. Women, frequent users of PCHPs, are exposed to approximately 168 chemicals daily. However, there are gaps in understanding women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, and beliefs regarding [...] Read more.

Personal care and household products (PCHPs) often contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that pose health risks, especially for women. Women, frequent users of PCHPs, are exposed to approximately 168 chemicals daily. However, there are gaps in understanding women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, and beliefs regarding these chemicals, as well as how these constructs influence their avoidance behavior. Existing questionnaires on EDCs in PCHPs lack reliability and comprehensiveness. Guided by the Health Belief Model, this study developed a self-administered questionnaire targeting four key constructs: knowledge, health risk perceptions, beliefs, and avoidance behaviors related to six EDCs commonly found in PCHPs (lead, parabens, Bisphenol A, phthalates, triclosan, and perchloroethylene). The questionnaire was distributed to 200 women at in-person events and online. The internal consistency of the constructs was tested using Cronbach’s alpha. The questionnaire included six items assessing knowledge, seven items on risk perceptions, five items on beliefs, and six items on avoidance behavior for each endocrine-disrupting chemical. Cronbach’s alpha values indicated strong reliability across all constructs. This newly developed questionnaire offers a reliable tool for assessing women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors toward EDCs in PCHPs. These findings could inform public health research and intervention strategies aimed at reducing women’s exposure to EDCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollution Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 1961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Barriers to Effective Management of Mediterranean Coastal Lagoons Following Key European Union Directives: Perceptions of Managers of Natura 2000 Lagoon Sites in South France

by Nathalie Boutin, Louise Chourot, Jean-Claude Raynal and Rutger De Wit

Environments 2025, 12(5), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050137 - 25 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This paper focuses on the challenges for the co-implementation of two European Union Directives, i.e., the Habitats Directive and the Water Framework Directive, for the management of Mediterranean coastal lagoons as protected areas. Many of these ecosystems are included in the Natura 2000 [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on the challenges for the co-implementation of two European Union Directives, i.e., the Habitats Directive and the Water Framework Directive, for the management of Mediterranean coastal lagoons as protected areas. Many of these ecosystems are included in the Natura 2000 network, the largest network of protected areas in the world. Based on semi-structured interviews with 45 stakeholders from 41 institutions, the study identified five main types of perceived barriers: economic, political and socio-cultural, historical, administrative, and ecological. The study confirmed that the co-implementation of the Habitats Directive (HD) and the Water Framework Directive (WFD) in Mediterranean coastal lagoons generated multiple and interrelated barriers. Beyond their regulatory complexity, these EU directives confronted managers with deep operational challenges. First, mismatches between administrative and ecological boundaries weakened their ability to control key ecological processes such as nutrient flows. Second, the proliferation of indicators, often perceived as disconnected from local realities, reinforced the critique of a management by numbers approach. Finally, the widespread use of regulatory exemptions, while intended to adapt EU rules to local contexts, frequently fueled persistent mistrust among stakeholders, especially in historically degraded environments. These challenges were further exacerbated by a siloed organization of administrations, limiting coordination and adaptive management. Overall, these findings call for more integrated governance frameworks, a more critical and context-sensitive use of indicators, and greater transparency in derogation procedures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiple Approaches for Environmental Assessment of Transitional and Coastal Waters II)

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24 pages, 2228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Bioremediation and Soil Fertility Study: Effects of Vermiremediation on Soil Contaminated by Chlorpyrifos

by Francesca Tagliabue, Enrica Marini, Arianna De Bernardi, Costantino Vischetti, Gianluca Brunetti and Cristiano Casucci

Environments 2025, 12(5), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050136 - 24 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Although the broad-spectrum pesticide chlorpyrifos (CP) was banned in many developed countries, it is still widely used in developing countries. Its residues persist in the environment for unpredictable times. CP is toxic to various non-target organisms and humans and inhibits soil enzyme activity [...] Read more.

Although the broad-spectrum pesticide chlorpyrifos (CP) was banned in many developed countries, it is still widely used in developing countries. Its residues persist in the environment for unpredictable times. CP is toxic to various non-target organisms and humans and inhibits soil enzyme activity and bacterial and fungal abundance. This paper aimed to evaluate the effect of vermiremediation on soil chlorpyrifos content and soil fertility. The application of Eisenia fetida or vermicompost was studied in terms of soil chlorpyrifos concentration, microbial biomass content, and enzymatic activities in a 120-day trial. Pesticide application rates were 0, 25, and 50 ppm. The CP did not affect the earthworm survival rate at the tested doses. The earthworms markedly increased microbial biomass carbon and the activity of β-glucosamminidase, while the vermicompost had a noticeably positive effect mainly on alkaline phosphatase activity. Finally, although the vermiremediation techniques studied did not perform a bioremediation activity, they proved effective in improving the biological fertility of the soil in the presence of high concentrations of chlorpyrifos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Soil Contamination and Remediation)

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16 pages, 638 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Global Recovery Policy of Used Lubricating Oils and Their Effects on the Environment and Circular Economy

by Catherine Cabrera-Escobar, Juan Moreno-Gutiérrez, Rubén Rodríguez-Moreno, Emilio Pájaro-Velázquez, Fátima Calderay-Cayetano and Vanesa Durán-Grados

Environments 2025, 12(5), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050135 - 23 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This manuscript underscores the significance of converting and reusing lubricating oils for dual purposes as both lubricants and fuels. This approach not only benefits the environment, but also contributes to the circular economy. To this end, this article conducts a review and delves [...] Read more.

This manuscript underscores the significance of converting and reusing lubricating oils for dual purposes as both lubricants and fuels. This approach not only benefits the environment, but also contributes to the circular economy. To this end, this article conducts a review and delves into the applications and re-refining techniques employed to recover lubricating oil from waste lubricating oil (WLO). A global overview of waste oil recycling and political feasibility in the marketplace is presented, highlighting country-specific preferences for reusing such oils. Moreover, this manuscript analyzes several studies that utilize recycled oil as fuel in thermal equipment, including diesel engines. The findings indicate that CO emissions increased incrementally under both low- (from 3.22% to 21.23%) and high-load conditions (from 6.6% to 18.2%) compared to diesel fuel. Another study reveals that 10% and 20% blends of transformer oil and diesel exhibit lower fuel consumption than diesel fuel at high loads. In all the cases examined, WLO demonstrated slightly higher emission levels than marine diesel oil (MDO), yet lower than those observed with heavy fuel oil (HFO). Full article

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14 pages, 1448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recirculation of Saline Concentrate in Spirulina Cultivation: A Promising Strategy for High Production of Biomass and Biomolecules in Semiarid Regions

by Saulo Nascimento Mata, Lucas Guimarães Cardoso, Priscilla Quenia Muniz Bezerra, Bianca Bomfim Andrade, Maria Beatriz Prior Pinto Oliveira, Susana Machado, Ravena Maria de Almeida Medeiros, Natália Hlavnicka Miranda, Jamila Sueira de Jesus Silva, Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa, Denilson de Jesus Assis, Jania Betânia Alves da Silva and Carolina Oliveira de Souza

Environments 2025, 12(5), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050134 - 22 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Desalination concentrate (DC) is a residue from desalination plants in semiarid regions, and it is promising for microalgae cultures. Its effects have been evaluated in a previsions study involving Spirulina sp. LEB 18 cultures grown in a medium containing 100% DC, supplemented with [...] Read more.

Desalination concentrate (DC) is a residue from desalination plants in semiarid regions, and it is promising for microalgae cultures. Its effects have been evaluated in a previsions study involving Spirulina sp. LEB 18 cultures grown in a medium containing 100% DC, supplemented with 25% Zarrouk nutrients, and without reuse. In the present study, Spirulina sp. LEB 18 was cultivated in the recycled saline concentrate medium from the previous experiment over three consecutive cycles using raceways. The recycled DC achieved a maximum biomass production of 3.77 g·L⁻¹, surpassing the control production (3.45 g·L⁻¹), and demonstrated high resistance to elevated environmental temperatures, reaching 42.80 °C. Protein levels (≤37%) containing all essential amino acids (~40% of total proteins) and fatty acids with relevant impacts on health were reached. Using up to three DC cycles for Spirulina sp. cultivation can contribute to the valorization of this residue and add viability to semiarid regions for biomass production with adequate nutritional composition for supplementation of humans and animals. Full article

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15 pages, 1608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dissipation Kinetics and Dietary Risk Assessment of Boscalid Residues in Two Table-Grape Varieties Under Field Conditions

by Paraskevas Parlakidis, George S. Adamidis, Theodoros Doulaveris, Dimitrios Makaridis, Christos Alexoudis, Zisis Vryzas and Georgios D. Gikas

Environments 2025, 12(5), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050133 - 22 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Grape cultivation is crucial due to its significant dietary benefits and the production of various byproducts. Fungicides, like boscalid, are frequently applied to protect grape crops from several disease, ensuring both yield and quality. However, the excessive or inappropriate application of boscalid may [...] Read more.

Grape cultivation is crucial due to its significant dietary benefits and the production of various byproducts. Fungicides, like boscalid, are frequently applied to protect grape crops from several disease, ensuring both yield and quality. However, the excessive or inappropriate application of boscalid may pose health risks to humans. Therefore, the objectives of this field study were (a) to assess the pre-harvest interval (PHI) and dissipation of boscalid in two table-grape varieties (Soultanina and Crimson) under field conditions and (b) evaluate the potential health risks associated with grape consumption for both adults and children. The residue of boscalid in the grapes was determined using a modified QuEChERS method coupled with a high-performance liquid chromatography diode array detector (HPLC–DAD). The dissipation of boscalid followed first- and second-order kinetics, with half-lives ranging from 3.32 to 6.42 days and PHIs from 8.11 to 10.90 days. The dietary risk assessment indicated that the early to mid-post application period could pose risks for both age groups, with children facing three times the risk of adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollutant Exposure and Human Health)

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