The Aesthetic Turn Toward Round Characters in Contemporary Chinese Animation

Abstract

In recent years, character design in Chinese animated films has evolved toward more psychologically complex and multidimensional portrayals of ‘round’ characters. This transformation has significantly enriched the aesthetic architecture of animated characterization. Through comparative analyses of Sun Wukong in Havoc in Heaven (Laiming Wan, 1961, 1964) and Monkey King: Hero is Back (Xiaopeng Tian, 2015), as well as Nezha Conquers the Dragon King (Shuchen Wang, Jingda Xu, and Ding Xian Yan, 1979) and Nezha Series (Jiaozi, 2019, 2025), this article explores how contemporary animated protagonists embody psychological multiplicity, nonlinear trajectories of growth, and inner contradictions, thereby transforming the typified character constructions prevalent in early Chinese animation. By integrating E. M. Forster’s theory of character, the Daoist aesthetic of ziran (自然), and the aesthetic principle of imperfection, the study establishes a culturally grounded theoretical framework that offers new interpretive pathways for understanding the evolution of national style in Chinese animation.

1. Introduction

In the context of the global animation industry’s ongoing diversification and localization, animation has increasingly evolved into a medium for expressing cultural identity and collective emotion. Within this global trend, early Chinese animation exhibited typified characteristics (Wei 2024; W. Wu 2009; Song and Zhang 2008), which were closely related to the specific socio-political and economic structure of the time (Du 2019). Over the following decades, as China’s cultural and economic environment evolved, the function and aesthetic orientation of animation began to undergo gradual transformation. Since the early 21st century, particularly following the commercial success of films such as Monkey King: Hero Is Back (Tian Xiaopeng, 2015), Ne Zha (Jiaozi, 2019, 2025), Deep Sea (Tian Xiaopeng, 2023), and I Am What I Am (Sun Haipeng, 2021), character design in Chinese animation has undergone a noticeable shift toward greater complexity and psychological depth. This shift is marked by a turn to roundness and, in some cases, elements of the Aesthetic of Imperfection (You 2022). Such transformations are not merely visual innovations; they reflect broader changes in social psychology, intergenerational culture, and evolving value systems.

In this study, round characters are defined by E. M. Forster’s criterion that they must be capable of surprising in a convincing way (Forster 1927, p. 78; Forster 2005). Such characters exhibit multidimensional psychological complexity—including internal conflict, emotional tension, and nonlinear development—and transcend predictable archetypes through choices that, while unexpected, remain coherent within the narrative’s emotional and cultural framework. Their construction reflects a deliberate interplay of narrative form, affective depth, and cultural resonance, distinguishing them from earlier Chinese animation.

The rise of round characters signifies a significant cultural and aesthetic transformation in contemporary Chinese animation. This shift is not merely reflected in the diversification of narrative forms, but more profoundly in the deepening and expansion of nationalized stylistic expression within character construction. In this process, indigenous philosophical ideas—particularly the Daoist aesthetics of ziran (自然, naturalness or self-so-ness)—resonate strongly in the contemporary context. The imperfection, inner contradictions, and uncertain trajectories embodied by these round characters correspond to the Daoist ideal of following one’s inherent nature and resisting excessive artifice. This aesthetic orientation provides both the cultural foundation and the ethical legitimacy for the emergence of such character forms.

Despite the growing prominence of round characters, current scholarship remains largely centered on topics such as national style reconstruction (Shasha Liu 2021; Whyke et al. 2021), the ‘Chinese School of Animation’ (Huang 2022), digital media aesthetics (Whyke et al. 2025), independent animation (Man-chi Cheung 2021), and the articulation of posthumanism themes (S. J. Wu 2025) and animation literacy (S. J. Wu 2025). While some studies have addressed audience psychology (Wei 2024) and emerging narrative strategies (Villén Higueras et al. 2020), there remains a notable gap in the systematic analysis of character development. Most research concentrates on macro-level narratives or technical forms, with insufficient attention to the crucial transformation from flat to round characters. For instance, although Whyke et al. (2021) mention the interplay between tradition and modernity in Ne Zha (2019), they do not analyze the mechanisms behind character complexity. Similarly, Huang (2022) traces the historical trajectory of the Chinese School of Animation, yet lacks focused attention on characters as dynamic carriers of cultural meaning. More importantly, the academic field has yet to establish a robust theoretical framework that systematically links the presentation of round characters with the cultural motivations rooted in Daoist aesthetics of ziran and the reception mechanisms operating in animation creation.

Building upon this identified research gap, the present study focuses on the aesthetic turn toward round characters in contemporary Chinese animation, seeking to address the following three core questions:

• How do early Chinese animated characters (pre-1980) differ from post-2010 Chinese animated characters—selected for box office success, critical acclaim, or cultural impact—in terms of visual and verbal signifiers, behavioral trajectories, and psychological complexity?
• How do contemporary rounded characters reflect shifts in audience psychology, intergenerational emotions, and evolving social and humanistic values?
• In what ways does the Daoist aesthetic principle of ziran inform and legitimize the construction of round characters in Chinese animation?

This study employs a qualitative textual analysis that integrates close reading, philosophical–aesthetic critique, and cultural–psychological interpretation. Case selection is guided by historical significance, cultural impact, and narrative prominence, focusing on iconic figures such as Ne Zha (1979, 2019, 2025) and the Sun Wukong (1961, 1964, 2015), which exemplify diachronic shifts in character construction. By examining visual design, behavioral logic, and internal emotional dynamics within these works, the research applies a vertically comparative framework to trace the evolution of core characters from functionalized symbols to fully embodied narrative subjects. Analytically, the concepts of flatness and roundness, informed by Forster’s theory, are employed not as typological distinctions within a single work but as tools to examine character transformation across diverse cultural and historical contexts. The scope of this study is limited to feature-length animated films that achieved significant cultural visibility, and does not encompass short films or less influential works, which may follow different patterns. Through this approach, the study demonstrates how the round character functions as an evolving narrative mechanism in contemporary Chinese animation.

2. Literature Review

This section first reviews the current state of research on animated character construction both domestically and internationally, establishing a foundation for understanding the notion of the round character. It then explores the theoretical extension of E.M. Forster’s concept of the round character within the context of animation studies. Finally, it engages with the Daoist aesthetic of ziran, examining how traditional Chinese philosophy provides cultural and conceptual support for the process of rounding character representations in contemporary Chinese animation

2.1. Current Research on Animated Character Construction

In international research on animated character construction, the focus has primarily centered on dimensions of authenticity, emotion, and the interplay between narrative and culture. Within the authenticity dimension, scholars often approach the subject through the lenses of anthropomorphism and embodied performance. Patrick Power (2008) introduced the concept of the Embodied Mind–Brain, bridging neuroscience, simulation theory and animation practice to argue that animated characters are visual constructions that integrate body and mind. This view aligns with Silvio’s (2010) notion of animation as a ‘new paradigm of contemporary performativity’. Building on this line of inquiry, Sheldon (2019), in his analysis of Gollum in The Lord of the Rings, proposes the concept of ‘directed empathy’, suggesting that although digital characters are non-human, they can nevertheless evoke genuine emotional resonance through anthropomorphic appearance, language and psychological depth.

In the affective dimension, animated characters increasingly function as emotional conduits. Van Rooij (2019) introduces the concept of the ‘Pixar Peak’ to explain why contemporary characters evoke strong emotional resonance through a tension between realism and abstraction. Both Sheldon (2019) and Van Rooij emphasize the interplay between ‘perceived authenticity’ and ‘psychological identification’, while Silvio (2010) expands emotional generation into a practice of cultural identification, viewing animated characters as mediating symbols for community self-projection.

In the narrative dimension, characters have gradually moved beyond their early functional roles to become narrative nodes endowed with multiple identities and complex psychological structures. Falvey (2020) highlights that character construction has become a central mechanism driving plot development, as well as a key interface for audience engagement and identification.

In the domestic Chinese context, the rise of the animation film industry has prompted a nascent shift towards character-oriented research. Wen (2025), for instance, examines how directors shape character expressivity through the principle of anticipation. Ma and Liu (2025) introduce the notion of the character arc to analyze Nezha’s emotional and psychological transition from a demonic child to a savior, while Peng and Zhang (2025) emphasize the presence of Chan aesthetics in animation. However, most studies remain situated within the framework of national style, continuing to treat characters primarily as visual vessels of traditional culture. The psychological structures, cultural tensions, and viewer identification mechanisms underlying this transformation have yet to be systematically theorized.

In summary, both the international emphasis on emotional authenticity and performativity and the preliminary domestic explorations into character affectivity suggest a broader shift in animated characters—from functional narrative instruments to psychologically complex individuals. Nevertheless, current scholarship has yet to formulate a coherent theoretical framework capable of addressing the holistic construction of character in animation.

2.2. The Adaptability of the Round Character Theory to Animation Narratives

E.M. Forster’s distinction between round and flat characters, introduced in Forster (1927), remains a foundational paradigm in Western literary criticism. This framework offers a valuable lens through which to examine the narrative functions and aesthetic qualities of animated characters.

In recent years, several scholars have sought to introduce Forster’s theory into animation studies and to reinterpret it within the specific medial context of animation. Forgacs (1992) critiques the commercialized form of roundness generated by Disney-style, family-oriented narratives, referring to it as commercial roundness. Crafton (2012) distinguishes between embodied and symbolic characters, emphasizing the differentiation of animated figures through performative nuance and psychological depth. Lönroth (2021) further contends that even characters defined by only one or two dominant traits may exhibit a form of performative vitality that disrupts the assumption of flatness as static, instead suggesting a condition of vivid flatness.

Although these studies have broadened the application of the round character theory within the animation medium, there remains a lack of systematic historical research on character construction, especially with regard to the longitudinal evolution and rounding trend of a single core character across different temporal contexts.

2.3. The Philosophical Support of Daoist Naturalism for the Roundness of Chinese Animated Characters

Compared to Forster’s theory rooted in novelistic structure, the Daoist concept of nature does not emphasize plot construction but instead grounds character realism, diversity, and vitality in the symbiotic logic between individual nature and cosmic life. The Tao Te Ching (Lao and James 2020) advocates dào fǎ zì rán (following nature, 道法自然), promoting naturalness and opposing external regulation of behavior and personality. This emphasis on the free formation of individual character aligns closely with the developmental and multifaceted traits of the round character, thereby providing theoretical resources for constructing round characters within a distinctly Chinese cultural framework in animation.

Scholars have elucidated the cultural functions of Daoist naturalism in animated character construction from multiple dimensions. H. Yu (2012) posits that Daoism, as a processual cosmology emphasizing the dynamic resonance between humans and nature, and between the individual and the cosmos, establishes the narrative foundation of Eastern life aesthetics through the rhythms of nature. Zhang (2017) further highlights that Laozi’s naturalism pertains to an ideal character state of simplicity, authenticity, and tranquility in individual cultivation, fundamentally constituting a non-deliberate mode of character formation. Cao and Lee (2024), in the context of the postmodern transformation of Chinese animation, argue that the social critique embedded in the Tao Te Ching aligns closely with postmodern theory, endowing animated characters with postmodern narrative features such as deconstruction, intertextuality, and indeterminacy.

While existing studies have provided cultural interpretations of the rounding of characters in Chinese animation, they largely remain at the level of macro-aesthetic trends or static philosophical analogies. The operative mechanisms through which Daoist natural aesthetics inform character construction have yet to be systematically explored. In particular, the dynamic interplay between Daoist conceptions of nature and character traits such as multiplicity, nonlinear development, and internal contradiction remains under-theorized.

3. Character Construction in Early Chinese Animation

From the mid-twentieth century to the early years of the Reform and Opening-up period, Chinese animation was deeply influenced by indigenous artistic traditions such as opera and folk art. Character design during this era emphasized recognizability, often employing stylized visual motifs to convey cultural meanings. –In Havoc in Heaven (1964), for instance, the image of Sun Wukong draws extensively on the Beijing opera tradition, combining facial mask conventions with the wusheng (武生) role type. The red face symbolizes loyalty and courage, the golden eyes highlight his divine nature, and the traditional costume reinforces his heroic identity (Shuanghua Liu 2019; Bonds 2019). Such designs construct a culturally shared visual grammar through which the character becomes a vessel of collective memory (Rodi-Risberg 2015). Similarly, Nezha Conquers the Dragon King (1979) integrates the imagery of a ‘divine child’ and a ‘young hero.’ The tender body conveys innocence, while the hair buns and red silk ribbons accentuate youthful vitality. Nezha’s weapons—the Fire-tipped Spear and the Universe Ring—symbolize moral righteousness and a sense of duty. Together, these visual elements form a highly condensed symbolic system that serves the clarity of the narrative.

At the linguistic level, dialog in early Chinese animation effectively reflects and reinforces character identity. For example, in The Proud General (1956), the exclamation ‘I am the invincible general of the world!’ dramatizes the protagonist’s strong self-awareness. In Havoc in Heaven, catchphrases such as ‘Here comes the Great Sage!’ and ‘Take my staff!’ have become emblematic expressions in the history of Chinese animation, while the celestial deities’ commands like ‘Insolent monkey!’ exemplify a performative language of authority and order. This style of dialogue represents a deliberate use of performative language within a specific aesthetic system.

Characters in this period generally follow linear and clearly structured narrative trajectories, often centered on themes of resisting oppression or fulfilling duty. Taking Sun Wukong as an example, his behavior displays a strong linear logic: from seizing treasures in the Dragon Palace to rebelling in Heaven, his actions are largely responses to external stimuli and situational challenges (Macdonald 2015b). The narrative focus lies on the conflict between justice and established order rather than on internal psychological transformation.

Nezha’s developmental path reflects a comparable narrative coherence: his slaying of Ao Bing is interpreted as ridding the people of harm, his self-sacrifice as an act of filial repayment, and his rebirth as the fulfillment of destiny (Macdonald 2015a; Fang and Mansor 2024). His actions are guided by ethical norms, and notions of sacrifice and responsibility are assigned positive cultural value. Although tensions exist between the individual and family or society, the character’s growth remains directed toward realizing preordained moral objectives.

As Hongmei Sun (2018) notes, the image of Sun Wukong has undergone multiple reinterpretations throughout modern Chinese history, consistently linked to the articulation of national identity. This historical continuity provides an important context for understanding the later emergence of round characters in contemporary Chinese animation. This study acknowledges that even in canonical works such as Havoc in Heaven (1964) and Nezha Conquers the Dragon King (1979), characters exhibit a degree of emotional depth and narrative evolution. For example, Sun Wukong’s insistence on the title Great Sage Equal to Heaven (齐天大圣) may be understood as a pursuit of dignity and recognition, while Nezha’s self-sacrifice dramatizes the dramatic tension between individual agency and social ethics. Nevertheless, such growth unfolds within a historically specific narrative framework: motivations are explicit, outcomes predetermined, and emotional change is expressed through symbolic cues rather than prolonged psychological development.

Overall, animated characters of this period are marked by symbolism and allegory. Sun Wukong embodies the pursuit of justice and defiance of oppressive authority (Chen 2024; Du 2019), while Nezha exemplifies the Confucian virtues of filial piety and responsibility (Qin and Cao 2021). Emotional expression is conveyed primarily through stylized visual forms and choreographed movement, reflecting the aesthetic and narrative conventions of the time. As the social environment and production system evolved, Chinese animation gradually began to foreground individual psychology and emotional interiority, signaling an aesthetic transition from symbolic to individualized narration.

4. The Roundness of Contemporary Animated Characters

Following the functional and moralized construction of character flatness in early Chinese animation, this section turns to examine the growing trend of round character development in contemporary works. It focuses not only on the increasing complexity of character portrayal—such as multidimensional personalities, nonlinear growth trajectories, and internal contradictions—but also on the creative logic and cultural foundations underlying this transformation.

4.1. The Rise of Round Characters in Contemporary Chinese Animation

4.1.1. Character Multidimensionality: The Spectrum of Personality and Behavior

In Ne Zha (2019), the protagonist Ne Zha exhibits a multidimensional and tension-laden personality structure. This complexity is not the result of arbitrary assemblage, but rather emerges from the dynamic interplay between the character and the various social structures and relational contexts in which he is situated. From a structuralist perspective, the meaning of an individual is not derived from an intrinsic essence, but is instead constructed through their relative positioning within different social fields. Accordingly, the film orchestrates a series of shifting social environments that compel Ne Zha to continuously change masks within the narrative, producing a complex constellation of rounded character traits.

Within the space of village public opinion, Ne Zha faces the social stigma of being a ‘demon child’, responding with a temperamental and defiant demeanor to resist this imposed label and reinforce his transgressive identity. In the domain of familial affection, however, he reveals a softer side—marked by kindness, vulnerability, and emotional attachment—demonstrating his longing to be understood and accepted by his parents. Under the structural pressure of social marginalization, he exhibits solitude and resignation, engaging in self-imposed exile and internalizing the belief that he is inherently unaccepted by the world. In the narrative space of self-growth and rebellion against destiny, Ne Zha displays traits of resilience, initiative, and a strong sense of responsibility, as he attempts to transcend the fatalistic framework of ‘heaven’s will’ and assert his own agency. In more relaxed, interpersonal contexts, he uses humor and self-deprecation as strategic modes of expression, alleviating the psychological burden of marginality and resonating with the emotional experiences of the audience.

Drawing on Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical theory, Ne Zha’s personality can be understood as a series of performances across diverse social stages. His shifting traits emerge within several structural relationships:

• The Gazed-At Other: In response to the villagers’ projections of fear and prejudice, Ne Zha intensifies his demon child persona, exhibiting aggression and rebellion.
• The Expected Son: In front of his parents, he expresses sensitivity, weakness, and a yearning for emotional closeness, attempting to conform to familial expectations.
• The Emerging Self: Through his evolving relationship and eventual confrontation with Ao Bing, he undergoes a transformation from avoidance to responsibility, embodying perseverance, autonomy, and self-sacrifice.
• The Spokesperson on Screen: As a symbolic figure reflecting the emotions of contemporary youth, Ne Zha employs ironic and self-mocking language to articulate the lived experience of marginality with authenticity.

Ne Zha’s psychological multiplicity challenges the moralized, unidimensional character constructions typical of earlier Chinese animation. His roundedness marks a narrative shift from symbolic function toward psychological realism, positioning him as an emblematic figure at the intersection of competing social structures. In doing so, he embodies the evolving interplay between animated characters as both cultural subjects and mirrors of collective social experience.

4.1.2. Growth: Internal Tensions and Psychological Evolution Driven by Nonlinear Change

In contemporary Chinese animation, character development tends to be diachronic, dynamic, and marked by psychological complexity. Growth is no longer framed as a morally guided upward progression, but rather as a spiral-like psychological evolution—marked by repetition, emotional rupture, psychological resistance, and ongoing self-reconstruction. This shift reflects a transformation in the logic of character construction—from external moral regulation to the sustained exploration of internal psychological tension.

In both Ne Zha (2019) and Monkey King: Hero Is Back (2015), the early stages of character development are dominated by the psychological energy of the id. According to Freud (1989), the id constitutes the most primitive part of the personality, operating under the pleasure principle—it seeks immediate gratification and avoids pain, unconstrained by morality, reason, or social norms.

Specifically, Ne Zha’s id-dominated state manifests from the moment of his birth within a context of social exclusion. Labeled as the ‘Demon Pill’ (this is the demonic portion extracted from the Primordial Pearl, which was nurtured by the spiritual essence of heaven and earth. It symbolizes impulsive, destructive, and unruly power), he becomes the object of collective fear and rejection by the people in the village. His aggressive behavior thus emerges as an instinctive reaction to the denial of his very existence. For Ne Zha, rebellion functions as a primordial means of affirming his being through the negation of the external world; the pleasure he derives lies precisely in the impulsive and oppositional nature of his defiance.

By contrast, Sun Wukong’s id assumes a more defensive and introverted form. After being imprisoned under the Five Elements Mountain for five centuries, he does not reemerge with unrestrained fury but instead displays cynicism, emotional sensitivity, and affective numbness. His refusal to take responsibility and his denial of the ‘Great Sage’ identity essentially reveal an inverted form of the pleasure principle—one that seeks satisfaction through emotional withdrawal and behavioral avoidance, as a means of shielding himself from potential psychological trauma.

At the ego stage, the psychological conflicts of both Ne Zha and Sun Wukong center on identity anxiety and the struggle for adjustment within interpersonal reality. As the executive component of personality, the ego operates under the reality principle, mediating between the impulsive drives of the id, the normative constraints of the superego, and the pressures of the external world.

For Ne Zha, this mediation manifests as a persistent tension between the desire for acceptance and the impulse toward rebellion. He longs to be acknowledged by the people in the village, yet cannot escape the anger and defiance provoked by his stigmatized identity as the demonic child. Though he aspires to do good, repeated misunderstanding and exclusion lead him to adopt rebellion as a form of self-defense. His oscillation between the longing to be accepted and the fear of being hurt reveals the ego’s continuous negotiation among ideal aspiration, emotional desire, and social reality.

Sun Wukong, likewise, demonstrates a defensive adaptation of the ego. His apparent madness, drinking, and denial of the title Great Sage seem to signal escapism, but in fact function as a coping strategy developed after profound trauma, aimed at preserving psychic integrity. Yet, the child Jiang Liu’er, with his innocent persistence, repeatedly calls Sun Wukong back into emotional engagement—trusting him, relying on him, and invoking his forgotten name. Confronted with this emotional appeal, Sun Wukong vacillates between rejection and response: at times irritable and detached, at times unexpectedly tender. Through these oscillations, the dormant ego gradually reawakens, regaining its capacity for connection, responsibility, and moral awareness within the reality of human relations.

At the superego stage, moral awakening arises not from divine command or social validation but from internal transformation. Ne Zha’s declaration, ‘My fate is determined by myself, not by Heaven,’ signifies a moment of self-authored ethical consciousness that transcends both stigma and destiny. Similarly, Sun Wukong’s reawakening, catalyzed by Jiang Liu’er’s unconditional trust and the trauma of the village massacre, transforms his defiance into responsibility. In assuming agency to protect others, he reconstructs himself not as a symbol of rebellion but as a moral subject grounded in empathy.

4.1.3. Internal Contradictions: The Structural Tensions That Sustain Psychological Complexity

If character growth reveals a diachronic trajectory of nonlinear development, then internal contradictions focus on the synchronic tensions that continuously structure the character’s psychological dynamics. Irreconcilable elements such as identity fragmentation and emotional paradoxes serve as the driving forces behind both behavioral choices and affective evolution. In Monkey King: Hero is Back and Nezha: Birth of the Demon Child, the protagonists Sun Wukong and Ne Zha each exhibit intricate and deeply rooted structures of contradiction that sustain their narrative and emotional arcs.

In Monkey King: Hero is Back (2015), Sun Wukong is no longer the rebellious icon portrayed in Havoc in Heaven (1961–1964), but a fallen hero—wounded, imprisoned for five centuries, and emotionally scarred. His transformation into a rounded character is driven by three interrelated layers of inner conflict: emotional defense, ethical rupture, and identity ambiguity.

Emotional Defense: Cold Detachment and the Desire for Connection. Sun Wukong’s emotional disturbance stems not from immediate circumstances but from deeper psychological wounds rooted in past failure and humiliation. From a psychoanalytic perspective, such trauma often triggers a mechanism of emotional numbing, whereby the subject suppresses affective responses to avoid re-experiencing pain. His interactions with Jiang Liu’er exemplify an avoidant attachment pattern: although he perceives the boy’s goodwill, he responds with sarcasm and emotional withdrawal—an anticipatory defense against the fear of being hurt again.

Viewed through Jung’s theory of the shadow (Casement 2012), this defense constitutes a struggle between the conscious self and repressed emotional content. Sun Wukong projects a façade of invulnerability to conceal the shame and helplessness associated with his past imprisonment and social rejection. Yet, the child’s persistent trust gradually dismantles this psychological armor, reactivating his latent longing for connection and recognition. The collapse of his emotional defenses thus marks the inception of his transformation into a more psychologically complex—or rounded—character.

Ethical Rupture: The Impulse to Save and the Fear of Saving. In the film, Sun Wukong does not initially intend to reclaim his heroic role. He is caught in a profound internal rupture between ethical impulse and action paralysis. While he yearns to intervene, he is simultaneously haunted by the fear of failure; he wants to take responsibility, yet doubts his remaining strength. This psychological pattern aligns closely with Karen Horney’s notion of moral anxiety (Mitchell 2017)—the persistent tension arising from the gap between an individual’s ideal self and their perceived capacity to act.

At the narrative’s pivotal moment—when Jiang Liu’er is abducted—Sun Wukong undergoes an ethical leap. His decision to act is not driven by a renewed sense of strength, but by an emotional inability to tolerate further loss. Rather than conforming to the traditional heroic rescue archetype, his action emerges from a non-rational commitment shaped by emotional responsibility.

Identity Ambiguity: Symbolic Displacement and the Reconstruction of Self. Whereas the ethical rupture concerns Sun Wukong’s struggle between moral impulse and action paralysis, the dimension of identity ambiguity operates on an ontological plane. In Monkey King: Hero Is Back (2015), Sun Wukong does not reclaim the former glory of the Great Sage Equal to Heaven; instead, he becomes a liminal and ambiguous figure. He is neither an ordinary human nor a deity, and his identity departs from the fixed symbolic meanings traditionally ascribed to him in classical mythology, entering a generative phase marked by the retreat of symbolic structure.

This state of non-affiliation signifies that the character is no longer defined by a stable identity but instead exists within a fluid process of transformation. Sun Wukong’s de-divinization—a process in which he is stripped of divine status, symbolic recognition, and institutional belonging, and must renegotiate his identity outside the celestial order—is not merely a narrative of loss, but a mode of existential practice that reconstructs meaning and relationality—not through the possession of divine power, but through a continued willingness to engage with the world despite his fall. This movement—slipping away from fixed symbolic systems and regenerating subjectivity in flux—marks the deepest level of his transformation into a round character.

While both Sun Wukong and Ne Zha embody internal contradictions essential to their roundness, the structure of these conflicts differs due to their distinct narrative and psychological conditions. Sun Wukong’s struggle emerges from a fallen identity, manifesting as emotional defense, ethical rupture, and identity ambiguity. Ne Zha, by contrast, contends with an imposed identity, leading to identity fragmentation, emotional concealment, and ethical tension between fate and agency. These divergent configurations reflect different modes of subjectivity—one shaped by existential pressure, the other by symbolic violence.

Identity Fragmentation: Stigmatizing Naming and Subjective Contestation. Nezha is assigned the identity of the demonic child from birth, confined within symbolic boundaries before having the opportunity for self-determination. This imposed naming constitutes what Bourdieu defines as symbolic violence: through discursive power, evil is pre-inscribed onto his existence, effectively depriving him of legitimate status within the social structure.

Through Lacan’s mirror stage theory, we understand that an individual’s self-identity is gradually constructed through the projection of the Other’s image. Within the mirrored reflections provided by significant others—such as his parents and Ao Bing—Nezha oscillates between the figures of a demon and a child, rendering him unable to establish a stable sense of self. His core dilemma lies not in recognizing himself as a demon, but in the impossibility of confirming whether he truly is one. The tension between the subject’s desire and the definitions imposed by society forms the structural basis of his fractured identity. It is within this conflict that Nezha develops a series of contradictory traits—rage and defiance, loneliness and alienation—which collectively represent his ongoing resistance against the stigmatized mirror image.

Emotional Concealment: The Defensive False Self and the Desire for Connection. In the first half of the film, Nezha exhibits strong resistance and rebellion, performing the role of the demonic child that he himself does not fully accept. He employs anger and mockery as psychological defenses while simultaneously displaying heightened emotional sensitivity—manifested in moments of shyness when playing shuttlecock with his mother and vulnerability during heartfelt exchanges with Ao Bing. Nezha’s complex psychology can be deeply understood through Donald Winnicott’s theory of the ‘false self.’ Under immense social pressure and the expectations of others, he continuously ‘performs’ a role aligned with the label of a demon, using anger, sarcasm, and aggression as psychological defense mechanisms to shield his inner true self—a self that longs for love and fears being hurt. This is not mere rebellion, but a form of emotional camouflage rooted in traumatic experiences. Nezha’s developmental journey is thus a psychological metamorphosis in which the false self gradually falls away and the true self begins to awaken. The various traits he exhibits—such as the coexistence of kindness and vulnerability, or the interplay of self-deprecation and humor—serve not only as emotional defense strategies but also as a compromise between resisting stigma and seeking connection.

Ethics: The Tension Between the Desire to Change Fate and the Constraints of Destiny. The widely recognized slogan ‘I am the master of my own destiny’ in the film does not represent a sudden heroic declaration by Nezha, but rather symbolizes an ethical transition forged through intense psychological struggle. Nezha does not initially intend to alter his fate; rather, after experiencing a series of setbacks—including misunderstanding, alienation, and sacrifice—he gradually moves from self-denial toward self-empowerment. It is precisely within this structural contradiction that Nezha’s resilience and initiative emerge, embodying the film’s tension between desire and fate.

Through the above analysis, it becomes evident that the contemporary portrayals of Nezha and Sun Wukong exhibit multifaceted personalities that directly respond to—and transcend—the singularity of flat characters. They achieve a transformation from typified symbols to psychologically authentic individuals. The nonlinear trajectories of these modern characters disrupt the static destiny of flat figures, thereby realizing the roundness E. M. Forster defines as the capacity ‘to surprise in a convincing way’ (Forster 1927, p. 103). Growth, in this sense, is no longer a moral illustration but an unfolding of psychological truth. Inner contradiction thus becomes the essential marker distinguishing round from flat characterization, revealing the psychological depth that defines contemporary animated heroes.

4.2. Toward Roundness: Aesthetic Shifts in Production and Reception

Scholars have often explained the rise of round characters in animation through macro-level factors such as social structures, cultural trends, and economic models (Smith 2022). This article instead examines the dynamic interplay between production and reception, arguing that psychologically complex, non-idealized characters reflect not only external pressures but also a deeper aesthetic shift grounded in indigenous cultural logic.

4.2.1. Creative Dimension: The Aesthetic of Imperfection

Jean Baudrillard (1994) argues that meaning in contemporary society is no longer anchored in a stable signifier–signified relationship but instead circulates through a fluid process of simulation, recombination, and semiotic drift. Within this theoretical framework, the classical aesthetic logic in Chinese animation—where perfection equates to righteousness—has been increasingly destabilized. Animated characters no longer serve as moral exemplars or idealized figures; instead, they embody the raw textures of lived experience. The growing prevalence of aesthetic of imperfection in contemporary Chinese animation exemplifies this aesthetic paradigm shift.

Visually, Ne Zha (2019) presents a radical subversion of the classic divine child archetype from Nezha (1979): the new Ne Zha is marked by heavy dark circles, buckteeth, and pointed ears—far from the handsome, upright image of earlier depictions (see Figure 1 and Figure 2). In Monkey King: Hero is Back (2015), Sun Wukong is no longer the awe-inspiring Great Sage, but a disheveled, disillusioned middle-aged monkey with unkempt fur and tattered robes. In Deep Sea (2023), the character Nanhe is visually grotesque, with distorted facial proportions; in I Am What I Am (2021), the protagonist Ah Juan embodies a rejection of idealized youth with his flat nose, small eyes, and wide eye-spacing—traits that align not with cosmetic perfection, but with a lived, unvarnished naturalness, echoing the physical and emotional textures of marginalized rural youth. This process of de-sanctification and de-idealization is neither intended to satirize or demonize mythological heroes, nor to deliberately caricature specific social groups (such as self-employed individuals from the urban lower class or left-behind children in rural areas). Nor does it seek to reduce characters to mere symbols of social oppression or psychological trauma. On the contrary, it follows the Daoist cultural logic of ziran—that is, naturalness or self-so-ness—which emphasizes respecting the inherent forms of individual life and acknowledging that flaws, contradictions, and struggles are organic components of existence itself.

The imperfection of these characters is not meant as an indictment of social injustice, but as a way to reveal an unadorned truth of life. If uglification constitutes an external, critical, and value-laden act of othering, then attunement to ziran represents an internal, receptive, and non-judgmental mode of authentic representation. The former speaks from a position of ‘I am gazing at or mocking you,’ whereas the latter embodies ‘we are telling the story of ourselves.’

Nezha’s imperfection is the natural outcome of his identity as a demonic evil, and the film’s central concern lies in exploring how he achieves natural growth within an inherently unnatural fate. This reflects an attitude of acceptance and empathy toward the lived experience of the other. Similarly, the decadent image of Sun Wukong reveals not merely a fallen hero, but a being of flesh and blood—capable of being wounded, confused, and humanized (Qin and Cao 2021). In I Am What I Am, the protagonist Ah Juan’s appearance challenges mainstream aesthetics, serving as an authentic reflection of his social identity and background. The film contrasts his unattractive outward appearance with his passionate vitality during lion dancing, revealing a deeper, inner form of natural beauty that transcends physical looks.

Thus, the aesthetics of imperfection in contemporary Chinese animation essentially bring mythological figures—once invincible and morally absolute—down from their exalted altars to the realm of ordinary human experience, allowing them to breathe natural air and share in natural joys and sorrows. This is not an act of debasement, but a deeper form of respect—a respect for life as it truly is. Such a tendency can be understood as a creative transformation and explicit manifestation of Daoist philosophy of ziran within the contemporary cultural context.

At the level of behavior, animated characters before 1980 were typically driven by strong moral or ideological imperatives, characterized by clear goals and pronounced heroism—for example, Nezha sacrificing himself to uphold filial and cosmic order, or Sun Wukong rebelling against the celestial hierarchy in the name of dignity and autonomy. In contrast, contemporary animated protagonists increasingly exhibit irrational, emotional, and even anti-heroic tendencies. The new Nezha is impulsive and irritable, overturning vegetable baskets and speaking harshly to children; Sun Wukong displays avoidance, hesitation, and resentment toward his fate; Nanhe in Deep Sea acts selfishly, opportunistically, and cunningly.

These behaviors are not signs of moral decline but rather expressions of the natural tension inherent in the formation of subjectivity. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, are mutually dependent and transformable. There is no absolute good, nor is there pure evil. Sun Wukong’s avoidance may stem from centuries of trauma; Nezha’s anger may arise from the loneliness of social exclusion; Nanhe’s cunning may reflect the survival intelligence of those living on the margins. Behind these negative actions often lie positive motivations—self-preservation, the desire for recognition, and the will to survive. Together, they constitute a complete, complex, and natural life form. While early animated adaptations also reinterpreted traditional moral frameworks, contemporary films go further by embedding moral ambiguity within the character’s psyche. Through contradictory behaviors, they challenge the expectation of ethical coherence, dissolving rigid binaries of good and evil and constructing a morally complex landscape grounded in psychological realism.

On the sonic level, Nezha’s sharp, slightly hoarse voice and Nan He’s heavy regional accent and occasional stuttering in Deep Sea demonstrate that voice is no longer merely a technical device for beautifying characters. Instead, it becomes an auditory marker of both geographic identity and psychological state. This authenticity of voice enhances viewer immersion and narrows the gap between animated characters and the real world, endowing them with a greater sense of lived experience and cultural depth.

In contemporary Chinese animation, beauty and ugliness are no longer conceived as opposing poles but are increasingly reconciled within a dynamic aesthetic process. This article argues that the aesthetics of imperfection not only reveal the authenticity of lived experience and subvert the illusion of perfection, but also embody the natural generative logic underlying the everyday experiences, cultural memories, and psychological realities of both creators and audiences. This transformation is not a one-directional act of authorial expression; rather, its validity and broad resonance arise from its deep correspondence with the evolving aesthetic psychology of contemporary audiences. It is through this reciprocal resonance between creation and reception that the aesthetics of imperfection transcend formal experimentation and emerge as a profound structural nexus connecting individual experience with collective cultural memory.

4.2.2. Receptive Dimension: Shifts in Aesthetic Psychology and Empathic Structures

The emergence of rounded characters in contemporary Chinese animation is not solely driven by innovation on the production side; it is equally shaped by shifting audience sensibilities and evolving structures of cultural identification. Against the backdrop of China’s broader societal transition from collectivism to individualism (Ren 2018), audiences have shown an increasing preference for, and even expectation of, characters marked by psychological complexity and emotional authenticity.

First, the awakening of individual consciousness has led viewers to move beyond the traditional appeal of morally idealized figures. Instead, they increasingly resonate with characters portrayed as failures, outsiders, or misunderstood individuals (Liu and Shao 2025). Within this structural shift, the rounded character functions as a vital medium for younger generations to engage in self-projection and identity formation.

Secondly, the restructuring of generational culture has reinforced the acceptance of imperfect characters. Confronted with employment anxiety, familial disintegration, and mounting social pressures, younger audiences increasingly seek narrative forms that validate failure and mirror emotional struggle. The emergence of the so-called ‘lying flat’ (躺平) culture—a passive response to systemic constraints (Zhou 2022)—epitomizes this generation’s skepticism toward idealistic narratives and their emotional distancing from perfectionist heroism. Instead of aspiring to flawless figures, they resonate more strongly with Ne Zha’s rebellious assertion ‘My fate is determined by me, not by Heaven’ and with Sun Wukong’s moments of vulnerability and hesitation. These psychologically charged portrayals offer authentic emotional resonance and a sense of identity consolation.

Moreover, the transformation of the media ecosystem has further intensified this individualized mode of reception. Social media and short-video platforms have amplified human-centered perception (Wang and Zhang 2020), encouraging audiences to engage more deeply with characters’ emotional motivations and identity fractures. This active process of meaning-making breaks away from the didactic, top-down narrative model of traditional animation and instead exerts reverse pressure on creators to construct psychologically credible and affectively resonant characters. In doing so, contemporary animation responds to the growing audience demand for complex personalities and emotional authenticity.

While sociological and psychological accounts have productively framed character imperfection as a symptom of social anxiety or psychic fragmentation—Bauman’s (2013) ‘liquid modernity,’ Han’s (2015) ‘achievement society,’ or Freudian melancholy—they risk reducing aesthetic innovation to mere reflection. This article, however, shifts the focus from diagnosis to emergence: not why characters are flawed, but how imperfection becomes aesthetically legitimate and emotionally resonant. To grasp this internal logic of becoming, we must turn to the indigenous philosophical horizon that enables such a transformation: the Daoist conception of ziran.

4.3. Philosophical Foundation: Ziran as the Logic of Aesthetic Naturalization

Underlying the normalization of imperfection in contemporary Chinese animation is a deeper cultural grammar: the Daoist conception of ziran, often translated as ‘the self-so’ or ‘what is naturally so’ (Callahan 1989). Unlike Western notions of nature as merely physical environment, ziran denotes a holistic cosmological principle valuing spontaneity, non-interference (无为), and the integrity of things as they are. This perspective frames flaws, hesitation, and emotional rawness not as deficiencies but as natural expressions of life, enabling the aesthetic naturalization of imperfection: imperfection becomes authentically real rather than abnormal.

The generative logic of character roundness can be understood through three interrelated dimensions—cosmological, ontological, and ethical—offering a profound philosophical foundation for constructing multidimensional animated characters.

4.3.1. Cosmological Dimension

Daoism conceives ziran as a dynamic process of self-so-ness (Lai 2007), in which all beings evolve according to their inherent nature without external imposition. This non-teleological, non-formulaic vision provides an aesthetic rationale for fluid, non-idealized personalities. Characters break free from rigid molds, transforming with circumstances and emotions. For instance, Nezha’s rebellion, struggle, and emotional vulnerability reflect this formless logic of life, highlighting the vitality and tension of round characters in contrast to the unidimensional design of earlier functional figures.

4.3.2. Ontological Dimension

Ziran represents the inherent manifestation of the Dao, encapsulated in dào fǎ zì rán (the Dao follows its natural course). It denotes a dynamic equilibrium in which beings—including social relations—unfold according to internal logic and natural tendencies (K. T. Yu 2023). Character growth is therefore not externally imposed but emerges organically within relational networks, where each interaction can trigger internal transformation and value reconstruction, aligning development with the rhythms of lived experience.

4.3.3. Ethical Dimension

Daoism posits that being and non-being produce each other (Bilimoria 2012), and that contradictions are mutually generative (Zhou and Huang 2017). This dialectical view legitimizes internal character contradictions, reframing tensions not as flaws but as integral expressions of a dynamic life state. Contemporary animated characters often embody traits such as compassion and aggression, struggle and clarity, revealing a dialectical unity at their core. Through this interplay of opposites, characters attain psychological depth and emotional authenticity, moving beyond binary logic toward existential complexity.

Historically, Daoist aesthetics have long been embedded in Chinese artistic traditions, though mid-20th-century animation practices—dominated by ideological instruction—largely obscured this dimension under instrumental rationality and collectivist narratives. In the 21st century, with the maturation of market mechanisms, the individualization of audience psychology, and a renewed pursuit of cultural authenticity, Daoist principles such as non-teleology, process-orientation, and tolerance for contradiction have been consciously recontextualized by creators, serving as narrative resources that counter modern anxieties and underpin the rise of round characters.

5. Conclusions

In recent years, a number of representative works in Chinese animation—such as Ne Zha (2019), Monkey King: Hero Is Back (2015), and Deep Sea (2023)—have increasingly exhibited multidimensional personalities, nonlinear trajectories of growth, and internal contradictions in their psychological structures. While this tendency does not encompass all contemporary productions, it is evident in many influential and widely discussed works. The development of round characters signifies not only a shift in character construction from typification to lifelikeness, but also marks a transformation in the function of animation—from instrumental rationality toward value rationality and subjectivity. At a deeper cultural level, this evolution is profoundly rooted in Daoist aesthetics of nature, which offers philosophical nourishment and constitutes the internal generative logic behind the emergence of complex, psychologically authentic figures. While this study emphasizes the philosophical–aesthetic dimension of this transformation, it also recognizes that industrial factors and global market forces have contributed to the diversification of character design. The cultural significance of character roundness in contemporary Chinese animation is multidimensional.

First, it transcends the visual limitations of the traditional ‘graphic nationality,’ which refers to conveying national cultural identity and spirit through visual techniques (such as ink painting or paper-cutting), classical aesthetics (such as blank space or poetic imagery), and symbolic systems (such as firecrackers, couplets, or motifs with specific cultural meanings). Rounded characters facilitate a shift toward ‘narrative nationality,’ which moves beyond a one-dimensional reliance on visual symbols to communicate culture and instead expresses cultural identity dynamically through character complexity. This narrative mode is deeply informed by the Daoist aesthetic of ziran, which emphasizes the alignment of human emotion with the natural flow of life. Within this framework, character construction is understood as a process of spontaneous becoming rather than a fixed moral typology, grounding the expression of ‘Chineseness’ not in external motifs but in the philosophical principles of relationality, fluidity, and transformation. As cultural carriers, rounded characters embody psychological contradictions, relational networks, and developmental trajectories, reflecting the spirit of the nation at the level of individual experience. By portraying imperfect, relational, and dynamically evolving figures, contemporary animation articulates Chinese cultural identity in a more modern, humanized, and nuanced manner. In this respect, ‘narrative nationality’ does not reject tradition; rather, it reactivates indigenous philosophical insights within a contemporary expressive context.

Second, rounded characters—through representations of fragmentation, failure, and marginality—resonate deeply with contemporary viewers, becoming ‘visual archives’ that reflect shared experiences, emotional struggles, and the complexities of everyday life. Within a cultural context in which Gen Z audiences increasingly value individual experience and emotional expression, this mechanism allows viewers to engage empathetically with characters’ inner lives, fostering reflection, emotional resonance, and a sense of psychological identification.

Third, the construction of rounded characters not only addresses Western theoretical concerns with authenticity, but also draws upon the Daoist aesthetic of ziran, thereby reconstructing and extending the notion of authenticity through a distinctively Chinese philosophical lens. This logic of character construction establishes a theoretical framework that is both culturally grounded and cross-culturally accessible, opening a space for cultural autonomy and offering new interpretive pathways for understanding the uniqueness of character representation in Chinese animation.

Looking ahead, this framework may also provide a useful analytical model for comparative studies of other national or regional animation traditions, where local aesthetics negotiate with global production systems. Moreover, the notion of “narrative nationality” offers a promising direction for examining how emerging digital forms—such as web animation, virtual idols, and AI-assisted storytelling—reinterpret cultural identity and character formation within changing media environments.