Search Results (133)

The development of Daoism in Italy is deeply connected to how its classical texts were received and circulated. Although Italian Christian missionaries were among the earliest Western commentators on Daoism, significant Italian engagement with Daoist works only emerged in the 20th century. During the first half of that century, Italian publishers released six translations of the Laozi, three partial translations of the Zhuangzi, and several general works on Daoism. This surge of interest was influenced by two major 19th-century developments: the rise of sinology as an academic field in France, which spurred European scholarly interest in Chinese culture, and the spread of international esoteric and occult movements, which drew heavily from Eastern philosophies. This paper focuses on two important Italian translations of the Laozi from the interwar period—Julius Evola’s 1923 translation and Attilio Castellani’s 1927 version. These translations exemplify the dual influences of academic sinology and esoteric movements on the Italian reception of Daoism. By comparing these works, this paper highlights how Daoist ideas were introduced and interpreted in Italy, shaped both by the translators’ personal backgrounds and their distinct intellectual aims, thus revealing the varied contexts in which Daoism was received in early 20th-century Italy. Full article

This article explores Schipper’s scholarly contributions to the study of dongtian fudi (grotto heavens and blessed lands) and specifically situates this project in its broader intellectual context and Schipper’s own research. While Schipper was not the first to open discussions on this topic, his research in this direction still offers profound insights, such as the coinage of the concept of “Daoist Ecology” and his views on mountain politics. This article argues that Schipper’s work on dongtian fudi is a response to the school of Deep Ecology and its critics, and also a result of critical reflection on the modern dichotomy between nature and culture. In Schipper’s enquiry of dongtian fudi, the “mountain” stands as the central concept: it is not only the essential component of Daoist sacred geography, but a holistic site in which nature and society are interwoven, endowed with both material and sacred significance. Through his analysis of the Daoist practice of abstinence from grain (duangu), Schipper reveals how mountains serve as spaces for retreat from agrarian society and state control, and how they embody “shatter zones” where the reach of centralized power is relatively attenuated. The article also further links Schipper’s project of Beijing as a Holy City to his study of dongtian fudi. For Schipper, the former affirms the universality of the locality (i.e., the unofficial China, the country of people), while the latter envisages the vision of rewriting China from plural localities. Taken together, these efforts point toward a theoretical framework that moves beyond conventional sociological paradigms, one that embraces a total worldly perspective, in which the livelihoods of local societies and their daily lives are truly appreciated as a totality that encompasses both nature and culture. Schipper’s works related to dongtian fudi, though they are rather concise, still significantly broaden the scope of Daoist studies and, moreover, provide novel insights into the complexity of Chinese religion and society. Full article

As the effective founder of Daoism’s Southern School, Bai Yuchan’s travels played a pivotal role in the sect’s early dissemination. Through a close analysis of his poems, prose, and letters, this study reconstructs the key itineraries and motivations of Bai Yuchan’s travels and examines how his itinerant practices shaped the early dissemination of the Southern School. His travels were divided into two phases: a pre-1212 period of Dao-seeking and a post-1216 phase of Dao-spreading, with the impetus for his later journeys arising from resolving internal alchemical cultivation dilemmas, which in reality, inaugurated his career of traveling to spread the Dao. Bai Yuchan established and disseminated the Southern School through sojourns and revisitations in various regions, with karmic opportunity (jiyuan 機緣) largely dictating the selection of sojourn locations during his journeys. Rooted in the Daoist philosophy of harmony, Bai Yuchan adhered to the principle of blending with the mundane while harmonizing one’s light (hunsu heguang 混俗和光) in his travels and interactions, maintaining active engagement within regional areas to foster harmonious relationships with local communities. This explains why Bai Yuchan was able to achieve the widespread dissemination of the Southern School through his itinerant activities over a short period. Full article

Aside from a few passages addressing animals or the environment, Confucian philosophy appears to lack an environmental ethics perspective. Li Zhehou’s (李澤厚) contemporary work in Confucian philosophy continues this lacuna by limiting his understanding of community to the human realm. Using the common liberal humanism that limits moral actions to the interpersonal human realm misses the importance of inclusive moralities such as animal rights and environmental ethics. I propose that if we return to the original shared common cultural roots of Confucian and Daoist philosophy that a Confucian understanding of the natural world can embrace the non-human environment within the scope of Confucian morality. Extricating ideas from the Yijing, the Shijing, Xunzi, Dong Zhongshu, Wang Chong, and later scholars, the concept of the mutual resonance and response (ganying 感應) between the natural world and humans developed into the unity of heaven and humanity (tianren heyi 天人合一). An inclusive Confucian depth ecology opens new ways of thinking that can be deployed to envision deeper dimensions for understanding the self’s inner life, its connections to the outer life of the self–other relationship, and its extension to a kin relationship with the environment. This paper explores how these old and new ways of thinking can change our behavior and change our moral interactions with others including the environment and thereby enhancing freedom as an achievement concept derived from graceful moral action. Full article

Daoist robes in the Ming Dynasty literature underwent a marked transformation from exclusive religious vestments to widespread secular attire. Originally confined to Daoist priests and sacred rites, these garments began to appear in everyday work, entertainment, and ceremonies across social strata. Drawing on a hand-coded corpus of novels that yields robe related passages, and by analyzing textual references from Ming novels, Daoist canonical works, and visual artifacts, and applying clothing psychology and semiotic theory, this study elucidates how Daoist robes were re-coded as secular fashion symbols. For example, scholar-officials donned Daoist robes to convey moral prestige, laborers adopted them to signal upward mobility, and merchants donned them to impersonate the educated elite for commercial gain. By integrating close textual reading with cultural theory, the article advances a three-stage model, sacred uniform, ritual costume, and secular fashion, that clarifies the semantic flow of Daoist robes. In weddings and funerals, many commoners flaunted Daoist robes despite sumptuary laws, using them to assert honor and status. These adaptations reflect both the erosion of Daoist institutional authority and the dynamic process of identity construction through dress in late Ming society. Our interdisciplinary analysis highlights an East Asian perspective on the interaction of religion and fashion, offering historical insight into the interplay between religious symbolism and sociocultural identity formation. Full article

This article examines Daoist ritual and meditative practices, primarily developed between the fourth and twelft centuries, as cosmotechniques: methods for engaging, recalibrating, and occasionally overturning the spatial and temporal order. It first outlines the cosmological framework of the pre-Qin and Qin–Han periods, in which space and time were conceived as correlative and qualitative, forming the grounds of Daoist practice. Daoist foundational practices elaborately aligned with this framework but also introduced subtle disruptions that discover the singular space–time for transformation. Through the investigation of bodily cultivation and communal rituals, this study argues for attention to the performative aspect of Daoist practices, aiming to access and enact alternative space–time, and suggesting a dynamic interplay between alignment and disruption. The study further analyzes internal alchemy and visionary practices that engage in radical reversals of natural rhythms—employing fire, dissolution, and systemic negation to reconfigure cosmic flow. As shown here, Daoist practice is not merely contemplative but performative, reconstituting space–time and body. Though not articulated in ecological terms, such practices demonstrate ways of modeling and modulating lifeworlds attuned to the rhythms of nature—pointing to the possibility of reshaping life under unplugged conditions. Full article

The Illustrated Commentary on the Wuzhen Pian Based on the Zhouyi (周易悟真篇圖注 Zhouyi Wuzhen Pian Tuzhu), authored by the Ming dynasty Confucian scholar Cheng Yiming 程易明, is an illustrated alchemical text that integrates the elixir methodology of Wuzhen pian 悟真篇 (the Awakening to Reality) with the images and numbers (xiangshu 象數) system of The Book of Changes (Zhouyi 周易). Centered on Daoist alchemical theory and elucidated through “Yijing diagrams” (yitu 易圖, diagrams based on the Yijing), it stands as a masterpiece within the tradition of alchemical Yijing studies (dandao yixue 丹道易學). Building on a review of the scholarly history of The Wuzhen Pian, this article focuses on the alchemical Yijing diagrams (dandao yitu 丹道易圖) in the Illustrated Commentary, exploring their terminological definitions, theoretical origins, and diagrammatic systems. By analyzing the structure of cosmology and internal alchemy practice theory (neidan gongfulun 內丹工夫論) as presented in these diagrams, this article demonstrates that the Illustrated Commentary not only inherits the theoretical legacy of early Yijing diagram scholars such as Chen Tuan (陳摶) and Yu Yan (俞琰), but also displays a unique systematic and intuitive approach to illustrating neidan practices through xiangshu diagrams (象數圖解). Notably, diagrams such as “Mundane Continuation vs. Alchemical Inversion” (shunfan nixian 順凡逆仙), the “Three-Five-One Mathematical Model” (sanwuyi shuli moxing 三五一數理模型), and the “Fire Phases” (huohou 火候) reveal attempts to construct an alchemical theoretical system centered on Yijing diagrams. The article further posits that the Illustrated Commentary bridges the gap between images–numbers Yijing studies (xiangshu yixue 象數易學) and alchemical visual hermeneutics, offering a fresh perspective centered on internal alchemy for the study of “Yijing Diagram Studies” (yitu xue 易圖學). Full article

The Seven Masters of the Quanzhen 全真七子 sect served as central figures during the founding phase of Quanzhen Daoism and played key roles in the sect’s early development. Originally positioned as the “Northern Seven Perfected Ones” (Bei Qi Zhen 北七真), they were instrumental in propelling the prosperity and expansion of Quanzhen Daoism. Over time, their images subsequently proliferated across various media—including portrayals in stone inscription, painting, biography, and novel, undergoing transformations through inscriptions, paintings, biographies, and novels—transforming transmission channels from Daoist temples to stage performances and from street corners to modern screens. In the Jin and Yuan 金元 periods, Daoist biographies and inscriptions portrayed the Seven Masters as exemplary figures of Daoist practice. In folk novels and precious scrolls (Baojuan 宝卷) in the Ming 明 and Qing 清 dynasties, they were presented as legendary, divine immortals and distant ancestors available for narrative appropriation. In modern times—particularly due to the popularity of Jin Yong 金庸’s martial art novels—they completed their universalization as Daoist cultural resources blending chivalric ethos and entertainment value. Examining the evolution of the Seven Masters’ imagery, two fundamental implications emerge: First, this transformation was jointly shaped by the power structures, functional needs, and media forms of each era. Second, beneath the fluid representations from sacred patriarchs of the Jin–Yuan period to modern entertainment symbols, there is an enduring thread of Daoist transcendental consciousness. Full article

This paper re-examines the story of Lu Xiujing’s 陆修静 (406–477) abandonment of his ailing daughter, as recorded in Daoxue zhuan 道學傳 (Biographies of the Adepts of the Dao, hereafter DXZ), to challenge prevailing scholarly interpretations of this story that emphasize Daoist familial renunciation as a Buddhist-influenced complete rejection of Confucian ethics. Through close analysis of biographies in DXZ, Lu’s own writings, and the compiler Ma Shu’s 馬樞 (522–581) life, the study criticizes the habitual thinking of scholars that overemphasizes the tendency of early medieval Chinese Daoism to leave home, and argues that DXZ takes the protagonists in the biographies as models to convey the ethical concept of striving to reconcile the Daoist concept of leaving home to pursue religion aim with the family harmony advocated by traditional Confucianism, and it offers some feasible ideas for resolving the Confucian–Daoist ethical tensions. Ma Shu’s biographical strategy, reflecting his own Confucian-educated background engaged with Daoist belief, positions Lu as an exemplar of this balance. By contextualizing these accounts within social realities and compiler intentionality, the study advances a revised understanding of early medieval Daoist ethics, that is, an effort to pursue the harmonious coexistence of religious pursuits and family care. Full article

This paper examines the Daoist stelae of the Northern Dynasties through the lens of Eliade’s religious theory, with particular focus on the transformation of profane objects into sacred ones and the transition of local believers from the profane to the sacred. Utilizing Eliade’s notions of “symbol”, “myth”, and “sacred space”, this study investigates two critical dimensions of the Daoist stelae. First, it analyzes their visuality by closely examining the imagery and symbolic systems presented on the stelae—namely, the “mythical pattern” identified by Eliade—with particular attention to representations of the main deity, the Heavenly Palace, and the Xiwangmu Xianjing (Queen Mother of the West’s transcendent realm). Second, it addresses their materiality by reconstructing the invisible processes associated with the stelae, focusing on the formation of sacred space and the Daoist rituals enacted therein. Applying phenomenology of religion to Daoist stelae analysis helps compensate for the limitations of extant Daoist scriptures and official historical records. Full article

Salvation through Refinement (liandu 鍊度) is a distinctive Daoist rite aimed at rescuing the souls of the deceased from hell, enabling their rebirth, and ultimately facilitating their transcendence. The Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity (Shangqing Lingbao Jidu Dacheng Jinshu 上清靈寶濟度大成金書), compiled by Zhou Side 周思得 (1359–1451), preserves a wealth of material related to Salvation through Refinement. This content can be divided into two parts: the ritual procedures of Salvation through Refinement and the associated internal practices (neishi 内事). Zhou explicitly stated that the Salvation through Refinement ritual originated from the Golden Book of Salvation according to the Lingbao Tradition (Lingbao Lingjiao Jidu Jinshu 靈寶領教濟度金書), compiled by Lin Lingzhen 林靈真 (1239–1302), whereas the internal practices are not attributed to any specific source. Comparative analysis confirms that the section on internal practices derives from the Brief Discussions of Inner Method of Taiji for Sacrificing to and Sublimating [the Souls of the Deceased] (Taiji Jilian Neifa Yilüe 太極祭鍊內法議略), compiled by Zheng Sixiao 鄭思肖 (1241–1318). Zheng Sixiao’s Salvation through Refinement method centers on Visualization and Actualization (cunxiang 存想), with the entire process taking place internally within the ritual master’s body. Building upon this foundation, Zhou Side incorporated additional ritualized actions and recitations, striving to integrate external ritual with internal practice. In doing so, he constructed a model of Salvation through Refinement characterized by the union of inner methods and outer rites. Inner Sublimation emerged during the Southern Song period, likely influenced in both principle and method by the then-prevalent School of the Mind (xinxue 心學). It sought to counter the increasing complexity of ritual practices at that time. Meanwhile, the continued practice of traditional forms of Retreats (zhai 齋) and Offerings (jiao 醮) reflected the Ming (1368–1644) rulers’ emphasis on the didactic function of such rituals. In his compilation, Zhou cited the views and materials of others under the name of Tian Sizhen 田思真 (fl. early 12th century) to articulate the inner meanings and core doctrines of the Numinous Treasure (lingbao 靈寶) rites. By positioning Tian Sizhen as an intermediary, Zhou not only established a line of transmission between the rites he compiled and the orthodox Numinous Treasure lineage represented by Lu Xiujing 陸修靜 (406–477) but also affirmed his conscious identification with the Daoist ritual tradition and his stance regarding its lineage. Full article

This paper examines the challenges of our hyperconnected society through the lens of Daoist philosophy, specifically drawing on the thoughts of Laozi and the Zhuangzi. This study begins by analyzing the broad implications of hyperconnectivity in contemporary society, highlighting how unprecedented levels of interconnection shape modern human experience. The analysis identifies three critical challenges in our hyperconnected world: the individual cognitive level (where connected subjects experience confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance); the structural level (where systemic forces diminish individual autonomy and create unpredictable outcomes); and the amplified social level (where the interaction between individual and structural factors intensifies social division, isolation, systemic risks, and cascading failures). This paper approaches these challenges through three key Daoist concepts: Dao as the foundational principle of reality, Qi as the underlying logic of interconnection, and the complementary principles of Wu-wei (non-action) and Ziran (self-so-ness) as frameworks for managing desire. These concepts yield two crucial insights: the need to deepen our understanding of connectivity’s practical dimensions and the importance of maintaining critical distance between means and ends through persistent questioning of fundamental principles. As technological advancement and material concerns increasingly dominate society, Daoist philosophy offers both a warning about the potential loss of human essence and practical guidance for maintaining purposeful awareness through Wu-wei and Ziran. The concept of Qi further illuminates humanity’s fundamental embeddedness in universal interconnection. This paper concludes by proposing ways to bridge theory and practice, emphasizing expanded awareness of connectivity, philosophical inquiry into essence, and the enduring relevance of humanistic wisdom. Full article

This paper examines the philosophy of “Dao follows nature” (道法自然) and investigates how Daoist clothing transforms abstract cosmological concepts into a “wearable interface for spiritual practice” through the use of materials, colors, and patterns. By integrating symbol system analysis, material culture theory, and the philosophy of body practice, this study uncovers three layers of symbolic mechanisms inherent in Daoist attire. First, the materials embody the tension between “nature and humanity”, with the intentional imperfections in craftsmanship serving as a critique of technological alienation. Second, the color coding disrupts the static structure of the Five Elements system by dynamically shifting between sacred and taboo properties during rituals while simultaneously reconstructing symbolic meanings through negotiation with secular power. Third, the patterns (such as star constellations and Bagua) employ directional arrangements to transform the human body into a miniature cosmos, with dynamic designs offering a visual path for spiritual practice. This paper introduces the concept of a “dynamic practice interface”, emphasizing that the meaning of Daoist clothing is generated through the interaction of historical power, individual experience, and cosmological imagination. This research fills a critical gap in the symbolic system of Daoist art and provides a new paradigm for sustainable design and body aesthetics, framed from the perspective of “reaching the Dao through objects”. Full article

This paper examines Ira E. Kasoff’s systemic interpretation of Chang Tsai’s Neo-Confucianism in his The Thought of Chang Tsai (1020–1077), focusing on Kasoff’s reconstruction of Ch’i (qi, 气) as the ontological foundation of Chang’s philosophy. Through a trichotomous translational strategy—distinguishing between “Ch’i”, “ch’i”, and “qi”—Kasoff systematically integrates Chang’s cosmology, human nature, and ethics into a coherent framework. He argues that Ch’i (e.g., Great Void, taixu, 太虚) serves as the primordial substance underlying all existence, while ch’i and qi explain the generation of phenomenal forms and moral agency. Kasoff highlights how Chang’s Ch’i-centric ontology refutes Buddhist illusionism and Daoist non-being, positing yin–yang interactions as the self-generative mechanism of the cosmos. Central to Kasoff’s analysis is Chang’s dual-nature theory of heavenly nature (天地之性, as the inherent goodness of Ch’i) and physical nature (气质之性, as the individualized limitations of ch’i); Kasoff demonstrates how Chang’s emphasis on learning (xue, 学) aims to transform nature and restore heavenly nature, culminating in sagehood as the realization of cosmic harmony. Additionally, by contrasting Chang’s Ch’i-based system with Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism, Kasoff underscores its originality—a dynamic, materialist ontology that bridges metaphysics and ethics. Full article

The Three Ni Doctrine of Healing the World 三尼醫世說 is a product of the Three Teachings Unity 三教合一 movement during the Ming and Qing dynasties. This doctrine is believed to have been directly transmitted by Confucius (Ch. Zhong Ni 仲尼), Shakyamuni (Ch. Mu Ni 牟尼), and Laozi (Ch. Qing Ni 青尼), which is why it is referred to as the “Three Ni”. After being extensively refined by the Qing dynasty Daoist Min Yide, the doctrine evolved into a complete theoretical system for healing the world. It advocates for the connection between humans and the world through “qi” 氣. By properly regulating the qi within the individual, one can influence the qi of the world, thereby achieving governance of the world through personal inner alchemical cultivation. The doctrine addresses the challenge of reconciling personal cultivation with the salvation of all beings after Daoism’s decline in political influence. It marks a significant breakthrough in the traditional Chinese ideal of “Inner Sage, Outer King” 內聖外王. Furthermore, Min integrated the Three Ni Doctrine with the Celestial Immortality teachings of Jing’ai Mountain Daoism, creating a systematic Daoist orthodoxy known as the “Heart Lineage of the Most High” (Ch. Taishang Xinzong 太上心宗). This initiative highlights the courage of Qing dynasty Daoist elites in reforming themselves to preserve Daoism’s status within the broader context of the Three Teachings Unity movement. Full article