Representing Women’s Interests in Japan’s Civil Society
Abstract
:1. Introduction
“Civil society has advocated for the representation of women’s interests. Yet, relatively little is known about the full range of actors who seek the representation of women’s interests, mobilize around women’s issues, and articulate specific preferences... Who in civil society seeks to influence the representation of women’s interests and how?” (p. 137, emphasis added).
2. Literature Review
2.1. Operationalizing Women’s Interests in Japan
“First, women’s interests are defined (or operationalized) as issues that are related to the private sphere; women’s issues are linked to their bodies, sexuality, and the possibility of giving birth. Second, and of course firmly intertwined with the first, women’s issues refer to the position of women in the public domain, and specifically in the labor force and the welfare state. Thirdly, women’s issues might have a feminist aim to overcome discrimination and to achieve equality and autonomy, be it in the private or the public sphere” (p. 6, emphasis added).
“In Japan, where the traditional gender roles have remained strong, many women tend to play roles associated with birth, nurturing, and caregiving. The value of the preservation of health has been greatly emphasized in relation to processes that have a negative impact on the living environment, such as pollution, overconsumption, and disrupted education. For this reason, they have identified the “3K (environment [Kankyō], education [Kyōiku], and caregiving [Kaigo])” as the main issues to be dealt with in their lives” [25] (pp. 330–340).
2.2. Who in Civil Society Represents Women in Japan?
3. Methods
3.1. Research Questions
- RQ1:
- What are the differences in the proportions of male and female leaders and staff in civil society organizations?
- RQ2:
- How much are women’s interests represented?
- RQ3:
- Who in civil society represent women’s interests in Japan?
3.2. Data Set
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Gender Inequality in Japan’s Civil Society
4.2. How Much Are Women’s Interests Represented?
4.3. Who in Civil Society Represent Women’s Interests in Japan?
5. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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<Politics> | % |
---|---|
Diet members (House of Representatives) | 10.1 |
Diet members (House of Councillors) | 20.7 |
Members of prefectural assemblies | 9.9 |
Members of city and ward assemblies | 14.6 |
Members of town and village assemblies | 9.8 |
Prefectural governors | 6.4 |
Mayors | 2.3 |
Mayors of towns and villages | 0.6 |
<Public Administration> | % |
National public employees through the recruitment examination | 33.4 |
National public employees in positions equivalent to director of central government ministries and agencies | 4.4 |
Members of national advisory councils and committees | 37.4 |
Local public employees in positions equivalent to directors of prefectural government offices | 9.8 |
Members of advisory councils and committees of prefectures | 31.9 |
Members of advisory councils and committees of city, ward, town, and village governments | 26.2 |
<Justice> | % |
Public prosecutors | 23.5 |
Judges | 21.3 |
Lawyers | 18.4 |
<Economic Field> | % |
Employees in positions equivalent to section manager level in private corporations | 10.3 |
Employees in positions equivalent to department manager in private corporations | 6.6 |
Executives in listed companies | 3.7 |
<Media> | % |
Journalists (Japan Newspaper Publishers & Editors Association) | 19.4 |
Average | SD | |
---|---|---|
Fiscal issues | 0.10 | 0.305 |
Financial issues | 0.09 | 0.283 |
Trade and international commerce issues | 0.07 | 0.248 |
Industrial promotion issues | 0.26 | 0.440 |
Civic engineering, construction, and public works issues | 0.12 | 0.331 |
Transportation and traffic issues | 0.10 | 0.299 |
Communication and information issues | 0.08 | 0.272 |
Scientific technology and research issues | 0.09 | 0.285 |
Local development issues/ Rural development | 0.13 | 0.333 |
Diplomatic issues | 0.02 | 0.155 |
Peace and security issues | 0.06 | 0.243 |
Law and order | 0.04 | 0.187 |
Justice and human rights | 0.06 | 0.238 |
Educational issues | 0.20 | 0.399 |
Women’s issues | 0.07 | 0.261 |
Local government and administrative issues | 0.12 | 0.320 |
Labor issues | 0.15 | 0.360 |
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries issues | 0.16 | 0.369 |
Consumer protection | 0.12 | 0.322 |
Environment issues | 0.21 | 0.409 |
Social welfare issues/ Healthcare issues | 0.25 | 0.431 |
International exchange, cooperation, and aid issues | 0.14 | 0.342 |
Academic, sports, and recreational issues | 0.22 | 0.411 |
Tourist issues | 0.09 | 0.293 |
Energy and natural resources issues | 0.06 | 0.238 |
Disaster prevention issues | 0.14 | 0.345 |
Fire safety issues | 0.03 | 0.173 |
Group support issues | 0.11 | 0.312 |
Others | 0.06 | 0.239 |
Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 | Factor 4 | Factor 5 | Factor 6 | Factor 7 | Factor 8 | Factor 9 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Financial issues | 0.593 | −0.008 | 0.052 | 0.005 | −0.048 | 0.020 | 0.107 | 0.052 | 0.083 |
Fiscal issues | 0.467 | 0.035 | 0.149 | 0.049 | −0.011 | 0.038 | −0.021 | 0.059 | 0.073 |
Trade and international commerce issues | 0.441 | −0.003 | −0.078 | 0.074 | −0.024 | 0.191 | 0.190 | 0.066 | 0.071 |
Communication and information issues | 0.407 | 0.095 | −0.018 | 0.062 | 0.150 | 0.262 | 0.025 | 0.241 | −0.112 |
Transportation and traffic issues | 0.357 | 0.115 | 0.032 | 0.068 | 0.040 | 0.159 | 0.035 | 0.291 | −0.041 |
Tourist issues | 0.343 | 0.142 | −0.002 | 0.004 | 0.372 | −0.014 | 0.082 | 0.138 | 0.198 |
Consumer protection | 0.328 | 0.090 | 0.165 | 0.034 | 0.055 | 0.056 | 0.247 | −0.073 | 0.243 |
Fire safety issues | 0.018 | 0.626 | 0.000 | 0.022 | 0.010 | 0.031 | 0.007 | 0.021 | 0.017 |
Disaster prevention issues | −0.037 | 0.568 | 0.082 | 0.017 | 0.075 | 0.110 | 0.034 | 0.212 | 0.128 |
Law and order | 0.160 | 0.476 | 0.098 | 0.195 | 0.057 | 0.018 | −0.040 | 0.022 | −0.088 |
Women’s issues | 0.079 | 0.023 | 0.556 | 0.266 | 0.174 | 0.149 | 0.061 | 0.037 | 0.137 |
Labor issues | 0.173 | 0.032 | 0.408 | 0.107 | 0.022 | 0.017 | 0.128 | 0.207 | 0.012 |
Social welfare issues/Healthcare issues | −0.048 | 0.034 | 0.388 | −0.010 | 0.059 | 0.010 | −0.103 | −0.071 | −0.106 |
Justice and human rights | 0.108 | 0.118 | 0.361 | 0.327 | 0.080 | 0.010 | 0.001 | 0.033 | −0.087 |
Local government and administrative issues | 0.241 | 0.245 | 0.350 | 0.092 | 0.093 | −0.006 | 0.007 | 0.240 | 0.162 |
Peace and security issues | 0.050 | 0.132 | 0.263 | 0.653 | 0.069 | 0.026 | −0.075 | 0.010 | 0.064 |
Diplomatic issues | 0.074 | 0.055 | 0.021 | 0.534 | 0.166 | 0.113 | 0.045 | 0.024 | 0.009 |
International exchange, cooperation, and aid issues | −0.022 | −0.018 | 0.106 | 0.340 | 0.456 | 0.232 | 0.064 | 0.072 | 0.010 |
Academic, sports, and recreational issues | −0.021 | 0.066 | 0.025 | 0.046 | 0.547 | 0.055 | −0.058 | −0.093 | −0.042 |
Educational issues | −0.052 | 0.002 | 0.272 | 0.177 | 0.471 | 0.059 | 0.001 | 0.054 | 0.006 |
Energy and natural resources issues | 0.079 | 0.131 | 0.113 | 0.104 | 0.048 | 0.552 | 0.019 | 0.092 | 0.189 |
Science, technology, and research issues | 0.167 | −0.011 | −0.011 | 0.053 | 0.102 | 0.484 | 0.086 | 0.046 | 0.021 |
Industrial promotion issues | 0.234 | −0.011 | −0.038 | −0.024 | −0.021 | 0.131 | 0.704 | 0.170 | 0.005 |
Civic engineering, construction, and public works issues | 0.155 | 0.150 | 0.027 | −0.017 | −0.103 | 0.153 | 0.153 | 0.417 | 0.013 |
Local development issues/ Rural development | 0.270 | 0.170 | 0.160 | 0.078 | 0.270 | 0.005 | 0.085 | 0.392 | 0.263 |
Environment issues | 0.005 | 0.206 | 0.162 | 0.021 | 0.134 | 0.286 | 0.095 | 0.072 | 0.431 |
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries issues | 0.100 | −0.036 | −0.098 | 0.005 | −0.045 | 0.041 | −0.020 | 0.006 | 0.335 |
Group support issues | 0.098 | 0.201 | 0.184 | 0.059 | 0.183 | 0.013 | 0.159 | 0.103 | 0.015 |
Others | 0.084 | 0.072 | 0.077 | 0.065 | −0.042 | −0.038 | 0.015 | −0.042 | 0.007 |
Contribution ratio (%) | 5.662 | 4.320 | 4.234 | 3.943 | 3.930 | 3.140 | 2.538 | 2.531 | 2.164 |
Cumulative contribution ratio (%) | 5.662 | 9.982 | 14.216 | 18.158 | 22.089 | 25.229 | 27.767 | 30.298 | 32.462 |
N | Avg. Factor 1 | Avg. Factor 2 | Avg. Factor 3 | Avg. Factor 4 | Avg. Factor 5 | Avg. Factor 6 | Avg. Factor 7 | Avg. Factor 8 | Avg. Factor 9 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cluster 1 | 759 | −0.13 | −0.41 | −0.11 | −0.13 | −0.11 | −0.17 | −0.02 | −0.18 | −0.08 |
Cluster 2 | 254 | 0.15 | 1.22 | 0.12 | −0.18 | −0.26 | −0.17 | −0.17 | −0.07 | −0.05 |
Cluster 3 | 30 | −0.44 | −0.06 | 0.07 | 3.6 | −0.35 | −0.39 | −0.06 | −0.18 | 0.02 |
Cluster 4 | 28 | 3.3 | 0.69 | 1.34 | 0.55 | 0.86 | 0.63 | 0.19 | 0.55 | 0.18 |
Cluster 5 | 131 | −0.18 | −0.11 | 0.02 | 0.13 | 1.18 | 1.4 | 0.59 | 0.17 | 0.37 |
Cluster 6 | 64 | 0.11 | −0.06 | 0.21 | 0.02 | −0.33 | −0.26 | −0.34 | 1.97 | 0.33 |
Label | Frequency | % | |
---|---|---|---|
Cluster 1 | Apathetic | 759 | 60.0 |
Cluster 2 | Law and order/Disaster prevention | 254 | 20.1 |
Cluster 3 | Peace and international relations | 30 | 2.4 |
Cluster 4 | Women | 28 | 2.2 |
Cluster 5 | Issues in general | 131 | 10.3 |
Cluster 6 | Local development and environment | 64 | 5.1 |
Total | 1266 | 100.0 |
Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries Groups | Economic/Business Groups | Labor Groups | Educational Groups | Administrative Groups | Health/Welfare Groups | Professional Groups | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apathetic | 14.00% | 15.10% | 6.30% | 4.50% | 8.70% | 11.00% | 5.20% |
Law and order/Disaster prevention | 11.80% | 61.40% | 4.30% | 2.40% | 5.10% | 2.40% | 3.90% |
Peace and international relations | 6.70% | 20.00% | 0% | 0% | 3.30% | 3.30% | 3.30% |
Women | 0% | 57.20% | 7.10% | 0% | 10.70% | 0% | 0% |
Issues in general | 2.30% | 8.60% | 19.50% | 6.30% | 4.70% | 6.30% | 4.70% |
Local development and environment | 8.10% | 38.70% | 3.20% | 0% | 8.10% | 0% | 9.70% |
Total | 11.60% | 26.30% | 7.00% | 3.80% | 7.40% | 7.80% | 5.00% |
Political Groups | Civic Groups | Arts/Cultural/Scholarly Groups | Sports/Recreation Groups | Religious Groups | Other Type of Groups | N | |
Apathetic | 0.40% | 9.10% | 12.70% | 6.70% | 0.70% | 5.60% | 748 |
Law and order/Disaster prevention | 0% | 0% | 4.70% | 0.40% | 0% | 3.50% | 254 |
Peace and international relations | 0% | 53.30% | 0% | 3.30% | 0% | 6.70% | 30 |
Women | 10.70% | 10.7% | 3.60% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 28 |
Issues in general | 3.10% | 21.90% | 14.10% | 3.10% | 2.30% | 3.10% | 128 |
Local development and environment | 0% | 6.50% | 24.20% | 0% | 0% | 1.60% | 62 |
Total | 0.80% | 9.30% | 11.30% | 4.50% | 0.60% | 4.60% | 1250 |
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Okura, S. Representing Women’s Interests in Japan’s Civil Society. Societies 2021, 11, 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc11030091
Okura S. Representing Women’s Interests in Japan’s Civil Society. Societies. 2021; 11(3):91. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc11030091
Chicago/Turabian StyleOkura, Sae. 2021. "Representing Women’s Interests in Japan’s Civil Society" Societies 11, no. 3: 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc11030091