Deep-time source-to-sink (S2S) systems in continental basins constitute a highly interdisciplinary and practically significant frontier in sedimentology and basin analysis. These systems integrate tectonics, geomorphology, climatology, and stratigraphy to decipher the transfer of detrital materials from source terrains to depositional sinks. This Special Issue presents five original studies that employ innovative methodologies and multi-proxy analyses to strengthen the understanding of S2S dynamics across diverse basin types, including rifted, foreland, and intramontane basins under various climatic regimes (humid, arid, and seasonal). Collectively, these contributions address fundamental S2S questions, such as S2S coupling, sediment routing reconstruction, and tectonic–climatic interaction, underscoring the importance of developing conceptual models for specific geological settings. Core contributions of the published papers are listed below.
(Contribution 1) S2S Coupling in a shoal-water delta within a rifted basin. Yang et al. investigate the S2S system of the Eocene Funing Formation in the Gaoyou Sag, a typical continental rifted basin. They establish a depositional model governed by the interplay of gentle-slope morphology, a humid subtropical climate, shallow lacustrine conditions, and weak syn-sedimentary fault activity. Subaqueous distributary channels are identified as the primary sandbody architecture in the sink domain, with traction current deposits dominating sediment transport along the pathway. This study illustrates how climate-modulated sediment supply and tectonic stability jointly control deltaic S2S coupling in rifted basins.
(Contribution 2) Evaporite–clastic S2S dynamics under seasonal arid climates. Gao et al. focus on the Paleogene Bottom Sandstone Member of the Tabei Uplift, revealing how seasonal variations in an arid climate regulate S2S processes within a saline lake–delta system. Five types of gypsum (layered, clastic, spotted, nodular, and mixed) record two key sediment routing systems: in situ chemical precipitation during arid periods (intensified by strong evaporation) and fluvial transport of pre-formed gypsum by floods. The study demonstrates that climate-dominated hydrodynamic fluctuations exert the first-order control on evaporite–clastic mixed sedimentation, providing new insights for S2S studies on continental basins within seasonally variable climates.
(Contribution 3) Fluvio-lacustrine S2S evolution in an intramontane basin. Kowalski et al. examine the S2S system of a Late Carboniferous intramontane endorheic basin (the Intra-Sudetic Basin) using integrated multi-proxy datasets, including sedimentological, geochemical, organic petrological, and palynological analyses of the Ludwikowice Formation. The source area comprises adjacent metamorphic complexes (the Kaczawa and Rudawy Janowickie units) and granitoid massifs, which supplied detrital material through distributive fluvial systems characterized by predominantly west–southwestward paleocurrents. Along the sediment transport pathway, nine facies associations were deposited, recording a shift from proximal braided fluvial channels to distal floodplain and playa–lake margins. The sink is represented by the organically rich Lower Anthracosia Shale (LAS), deposited in a deep lacustrine environment under dysoxic–anoxic conditions, which are conducive to organic matter preservation. Primary S2S controls include strike-slip fault-driven subsidence (defining depocenters) and seasonal climatic fluctuations (regulating detrital input and lake hydrology, i.e., open/closed alternations). Based on these observations, the authors proposed a four-stage S2S evolutionary model that consisted of fluvial-dominated deposition, floodplain expansion, lacustrine transgression, and subsequent deltaic progradation, highlighting the effectiveness of integrated proxy analysis in resolving S2S dynamics in closed-basin systems.
(Contribution 4) Deep-water S2S process of finely grained deposits. Zhou et al. investigated deep-water traction-current sedimentation in siliceous shales of the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in the Weiyuan area of the Sichuan Basin, based on nanoscale petrological observations. By demonstrating that traction currents played a significant role in sediment transport and redistribution within the basin-floor sink, rather than exclusively suspension settling, the authors refined the S2S interpretation of finely grained sediment routing in a deep-water basin. Sediment sources include finely grained siliciclastic and biogenic material derived from adjacent uplifted areas and shelf regions, transported by low-density, bottom-hugging traction currents. Micro- to nano-scale sedimentary fabrics, including aligned clay platelets, graded laminae, and current-related microstructures, record sustained lateral sediment transport under relatively low-energy but persistent hydrodynamic conditions. The depositional sink comprises organically rich siliceous shales accumulated in a deep-water environment, where traction-current reworking influenced sediment sorting, fabric development, and organic matter distribution. This study extends the S2S framework to a nanoscale domain, highlighting how subtle hydrodynamic processes significantly modify sediment delivery and accumulation patterns in deep-water basins, with important implications for shale reservoir heterogeneity and predictability.
(Contribution 5) Quantitative S2S analysis in a rift Basin. Li et al. conduct a quantitative S2S analysis of the Paleogene Zhuhai Formation in the rifted Zhu III Depression, establishing a fault–slope coupled valley–fan depositional model. The study delineates five provenance areas (A1–A5) that feed five depositional zones (S1–S5) via seven incised valleys. It establishes quantitative correlations between S2S parameters (e.g., catchment area, valley length, and cross-sectional area) and the scale of the sedimentary systems. The transport potential energy and hydrodynamic intensity are governed by elevation differences between the source area and the valley width-to-depth ratio, quantitatively linking the source (the Shenhu Uplift) to the sink (fan delta to tidal flat deposits) through definable pathway characteristics. Quantitative relationships between S2S parameters and sediment transport potential significantly enhance the predictability of sandbody distribution in rift basins.
Synthesis and Future Perspectives
In summary, the five contributions in this Special Issue collectively delineate three trends in deep-time continental S2S studies. (1) Context-dependent S2S dynamics. There is a growing consensus that S2S systems are fundamentally governed by the tectonic framework of the host basin. Rift basins, as discussed in Contributions 1 and 5, are ruled by fault-controlled provenance and valley–fan coupling. The evolution of foreland basins (Contribution 4) is directly related to the interplay between thrust tectonics and erosional feedback. Endorheic basins (Contribution 3) are characterized by a unique climate–tectonic equilibrium specific to closed hydrological systems. Saline lake basins (Contribution 2) reveal the significant influence of arid climatic conditions on evaporite–clastic interactions. (2) Multiproxy and quantitative synthesis. There has been a definitive shift in the field from isolated proxy studies to the integration of cross-validated, multi-method datasets (e.g., combining seismic geomorphology, heavy mineral analysis, and geochemistry). This shift is coupled with an increased emphasis on quantitative parameterization (e.g., correlating valley geometry with sediment flux), which significantly improves the accuracy of S2S process reconstruction and bridges the critical gap between qualitative description and predictive numerical modelling. (3) Integrated climate–tectonic–geomorphic forcing. Contemporary studies increasingly adopt a holistic, system-scale perspective. Rather than attributing control to a single factor, they decipher how the synergistic interplay among tectonic uplift, climate-modulated weathering regimes, and landscape evolution co-govern S2S dynamics across a spectrum of temporal and spatial scales.
Building on these advancements, future research should focus on four key areas. (1) Advancing quantitative forward modelling. Refining numerical models to quantitatively simulate sediment flux, routing, and mass balance in deep-time basins is essential to bridge the persistent gap between qualitative observations and quantitative predictions. (2) Cross-scale comparative analysis. Systematic comparisons across different basin types and temporal scales are needed to distil universal S2S principles while rigorously accounting for context-specific variability. (3) Leveraging emerging technologies. Integrating cutting-edge tools, such as machine learning for automated seismic feature extraction and high-precision geochronology, promises to provide finer-resolution insights into S2S dynamics. (4) Enhancing applied relevance. Strengthening the empirical and predictive links between S2S system attributes and hydrocarbon reservoir distribution patterns will further solidify the practical utility of deep-time S2S research for resource exploration.
This Special Issue advances the field of deep-time continental S2S research by presenting a variety of topics, including basin tectonics, methodological innovation, and paleoclimatic contexts. Each contribution addresses critical knowledge gaps in S2S coupling. These studies collectively underscore the necessity of interdisciplinary approaches and setting-specific conceptual models, from quantitative fault–sediment coupling in rifts to climatically modulated processes in saline and endorheic basins. They provide a robust foundation for future research, demonstrating that unravelling the complexities of ancient S2S systems necessitates integrating tectonic, climatic, geomorphic, and stratigraphic data—an approach that advances both fundamental Earth science and its applied frontiers.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
List of Contributions
- Yang, Z.; Dong, G.; Zeng, L.; Qiu, Y.; Guo, C.; Ma, Z.; Wang, T.; Yang, X.; Ran, S.; Zhao, X. Identification and Sedimentary Model of Shallow-Water Deltas: A Case Study of the Funing Formation, Subei Basin, Northeast China. Minerals 2025, 15, 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15030207.
- Gao, X.; He, W.; Dou, L.; Yan, J.; Sun, Q.; Yi, Z.; Li, B. The Influence of Seasonal Variations in a Continental Lacustrine Basin in an Arid Climate on the Occurrence Characteristics of Gypsum: A Case Study from the Paleogene Bottom Sandstone Member, Tabei Uplift. Minerals 2025, 15, 639. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060639.
- Kowalski, A.; Dąbek-Głowacka, J.; Nowak, G.J.; Górecka-Nowak, A.; Wyrwalska, U.; Furca, M.; Wójcik-Tabol, P. Evolution of a Late Carboniferous Fluvio-Lacustrine System in an Endorheic Basin: Multiproxy Insights from the Ludwikowice Formation, Intra-Sudetic Basin (SW Poland, NE Bohemian Massif). Minerals 2025, 15, 1077. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15101077.
- Zhou, X.; Zhao, J.; Yan, B.; Zhu, Z.; Yang, N.; Liang, P.; Guo, W. Deep-Water Traction Current Sedimentation in the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation Siliceous Shales, Weiyuan Area, Sichuan Basin, China, Using Nano-Resolution Petrological Evidence. Minerals 2025, 15, 723. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15070723.
- Li, M.; Man, Y.; Wang, L.; Chen, Y.; Xu, S.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, D. Sedimentary Processes and Source-to-Sink System of the Zhuhai Formation in the Southern Steep Slope Zone of the Zhu III Depression Offshore SE China. Minerals 2026, 16, 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010057.
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