Energy-Optimized Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Water via Sono-Photo-Fenton-like Process and nZVI

Van Nguyen, Hoang; Pham, Tung Son; Van Nguyen, Huong; Chung, Woojin; La, Duong Duc; Nguyen, Dinh Duc

doi:10.3390/w18010037

Open AccessArticle

Energy-Optimized Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Water via Sono-Photo-Fenton-like Process and nZVI

by

Hoang Van Nguyen

¹

,

Tung Son Pham

^1,*

,

Huong Van Nguyen

¹

,

Woojin Chung

²,

Duong Duc La

¹

and

Dinh Duc Nguyen

^2,*

¹

Institute of Materials, Biology and Environment, 17 Hoang Sam, Nghia Do, Hanoi 140001, Vietnam

²

Department of Civil & Energy System Engineering, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Republic of Korea

^*

Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Water 2026, 18(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18010037

Submission received: 29 October 2025 / Revised: 4 December 2025 / Accepted: 16 December 2025 / Published: 22 December 2025

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Advanced Oxidation Technology for Water Treatment)

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Abstract

This work optimizes the energetic performance of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) abatement in water using a sono-photo-Fenton-like (SPF) process coupled with nano zero-valent iron (nZVI). A response–surface methodology (RSM) with a five-level central composite design (CCD) was applied to concurrently minimize specific energy consumption (SEC) from ultrasound (US) and UV irradiation while maximizing TNT removal. The optimal conditions were US power 80 W for 2 min and UV power 10 W for 6 min, yielding 73.95% TNT removal with SEC = 101.19 kWh kg⁻¹ TNT removed. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) test revealed that US power had the greatest effect on removal efficiency, whereas UV and US exposure times predominantly influenced SEC. Relative to the other Fenton-like configurations examined, the optimized SPF achieved superior removal at lower SEC and enabled enhanced iron recovery compared with photo-Fenton process using Fe²⁺. When applied to actual “yellow” wastewater, the optimized SPF again outperformed the photo-Fenton process using Fe²⁺, reducing SEC from 380.77 to 252.60 kWh kg⁻¹ and increasing treatment efficiency. The high-power/short-duration US paired with a low-power/short-duration UV regime provides a favorable efficacy–energy trade-off and supports pilot-scale deployment.

Keywords: sono-photo-Fenton; nZVI; TNT; RSM/CCD; design-expert; energy efficiency

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MDPI and ACS Style

Van Nguyen, H.; Pham, T.S.; Van Nguyen, H.; Chung, W.; La, D.D.; Nguyen, D.D. Energy-Optimized Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Water via Sono-Photo-Fenton-like Process and nZVI. Water 2026, 18, 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/w18010037

AMA Style

Van Nguyen H, Pham TS, Van Nguyen H, Chung W, La DD, Nguyen DD. Energy-Optimized Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Water via Sono-Photo-Fenton-like Process and nZVI. Water. 2026; 18(1):37. https://doi.org/10.3390/w18010037

Chicago/Turabian Style

Van Nguyen, Hoang, Tung Son Pham, Huong Van Nguyen, Woojin Chung, Duong Duc La, and Dinh Duc Nguyen. 2026. "Energy-Optimized Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Water via Sono-Photo-Fenton-like Process and nZVI" Water 18, no. 1: 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/w18010037

APA Style

Van Nguyen, H., Pham, T. S., Van Nguyen, H., Chung, W., La, D. D., & Nguyen, D. D. (2026). Energy-Optimized Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Water via Sono-Photo-Fenton-like Process and nZVI. Water, 18(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/w18010037

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Energy-Optimized Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Water via Sono-Photo-Fenton-like Process and nZVI

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