Search Results (132)

The construction sector contributes substantially to global greenhouse gas emissions, making material substitutions a key strategy for advancing sustainability transitions. Mass timber has emerged as a low-carbon alternative to mineral-based construction materials, offering biogenic carbon storage and compatibility with prefabricated and industrialized building systems. This study aims to systematically synthesize the economic, cost, and market evidence on mass timber construction by reviewing 143 peer-reviewed publications, with the objective of clarifying what is empirically known and where uncertainties remain. The reviewed literature reveals three core findings. First, economic outcomes are mixed: while several studies report regional value creation, supply-chain upgrading, and alignment with circular-economy principles, others highlight persistent constraints such as limited manufacturing capacity and uneven policy support. Second, construction cost findings vary substantially, ranging from cost parity or modest savings relative to conventional systems to premiums of approximately 10–15%, shaped by regional pricing, labor availability, transportation distance, regulatory conditions, and supply-chain maturity. Third, market-oriented studies consistently identify slow diffusion, limited practitioner experience, and risk-averse investment environments as key barriers to adoption. Overall, the review shows that economic performance is not yet consistently established and underscores the need for more standardized, context-sensitive, and methodologically consistent evaluation frameworks to support informed decision-making and the sustainable scaling of mass timber construction. Full article

To protect the endangered Northern Spotted Owl, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service established extensive conservation areas across the Pacific Northwest (PNW). While this policy effectively contributed to the preservation of an endangered species, it also generated significant short- and long-term impacts on the U.S. forestry market. This study investigates the impact of federal timber harvesting restrictions in the Pacific Northwest in the early 1990s on the U.S. softwood market, particularly on softwood planting in the South. By constructing and analyzing a panel dataset covering 537 counties in seven southern U.S. states from 1977 to 2007, the research finds that timber-harvesting restrictions triggered by the listing of the Northern Spotted Owl as threatened led to a significant increase in softwood planting rates in the Southern U.S. Previous studies have shown that set-asides can shift timber harvesting from one region to another and raise prices in the short term. This study illustrates a different outcome of set-asides: tree planting. We argue that accounting for long-term investment responses, such as tree planting, is critical when evaluating the impacts of forest policies, as these can significantly alter estimates of net carbon balance and overall market outcomes. Full article

We estimate Oregon’s mass timber-related market value and economic contribution using two complementary valuation strategies and two IMPLAN implementations. Although mass timber includes CLT, glulam, nail-laminated timber, dowel-laminated timber, mass plywood panels, and structural composite lumber products, the empirical market-value estimates are centered primarily on CLT- and MPP-related evidence because these products have the most consistently available Oregon-specific data. Market value is inferred from production-based approaches, including facility capacity, Oregon’s share of U.S. output, and tracer-product scaling, and from demand-based approaches, including harvest routing, construction floor area, and U.S. demand allocation. These direct values are then entered into industry contribution analysis (ICA) for Oregon’s Engineered Wood Member and Truss Manufacturing sector and into analysis-by-parts (ABP) using a custom mass timber spending pattern. During 2018–2023, production-based estimates were larger and more variable than demand-based estimates, bracketing a plausible scenario range rather than providing a single point estimate. In 2022 price scenarios, all price-exposed cases scale proportionally with assumed panel prices. When identical direct values are used, ABP produces larger total employment and output effects than ICA because it routes more activity through upstream supplier industries. Output-per-worker sensitivity affects only direct employment in ABP. Forward scenarios for 2030 and 2035 indicate substantially larger total effects under ABP than ICA, but these estimates are conditional scenarios rather than forecasts. The framework provides a transparent basis for policy, investment, supplier-development, and workforce-planning discussions in an emerging industry with incomplete product-level data. Full article

The urban trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) plays a key role in sustaining livelihoods in the Global South, while also suggesting potential pressure on resource supply systems. This study provides an integrated analysis of NTFP diversity, market structure, economic importance, and perceived drivers of resource decline in Kolwezi, a rapidly expanding mining city where such dynamics remain poorly documented. Data were collected through surveys conducted with 35 sellers across two major urban markets and 384 consumers from different neighbourhoods and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics to examine patterns, associations, and socio-demographic influences. A total of 65 NTFP species were recorded, including 49 plant, 14 animal, and 2 fungal species, reflecting strong dependence on Miombo ecosystems. Medicinal (59.3%) and food uses dominate, with multifunctional species such as Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J.H.Kirkbr. & Wiersama, Canarium schweinfurthii Engl., Terminalia mollis M.A.Lawson, Gardenia ternifolia subsp. jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Verdc., and Albizia antunesiana Harms, playing a central role in both household use and market supply. The trade is largely female-dominated (79.1%) and constitutes a major component of the informal urban economy, with monthly incomes ranging from USD 9 to 429.3, primarily driven by sales volume rather than unit price. However, the sector is constrained by structural and logistical limitations, including remoteness of supply areas, seasonality, and limited value addition. The perceived declining availability of high-use-value species, attributed by respondents to deforestation, mining expansion, and overexploitation, highlights perceived sustainability concerns. These pressures are perceived differently across socio-demographic groups, indicating heterogeneous understandings of environmental change. Overall, the results indicate a perceived mismatch between rising urban demand and declining resource availability, which may reflect an emerging socio-ecological imbalance between urban demand and perceived resource availability. Addressing these challenges requires integrated strategies that combine the domestication of priority species, the development of processing chains, improved infrastructure, and strengthened governance mechanisms. Such approaches are essential to reconcile livelihood support with the sustainable management of NTFPs in rapidly transforming urban landscapes. Full article

Timber sale prices are influenced by multiple tract, product, and transaction characteristics. This study evaluates the effects of species composition, product class, sale method, harvest type, timber quality, and average tree diameter on timber stumpage prices using timber sale records from Alabama between 1 January 2010 and 31 December 2019. Prices were modeled on a per weight unit basis using a generalized linear model with a Gamma distribution and logarithmic link. Results indicate that larger average diameters were consistently associated with higher prices across most product classes. Harvest type also influenced prices, with salvage operations yielding prices approximately 8.3% lower than thinning operations. Timber quality had a moderate effect: good-to-excellent quality timber sold for about 4.8% higher prices than poor-to-fair quality timber. Sale method was an important determinant of price outcomes. Negotiated sales generated significantly lower prices than sealed-bid sales, averaging approximately 17% lower overall. However, interaction analysis revealed that negotiated sales produced higher prices for mixed hardwood sawtimber, likely reflecting the diverse end uses of these products. Regional effects were also evident, with higher prices observed in the southwestern portion of the state, likely due to proximity to the Port of Mobile and associated export markets. These findings highlight the importance of both tract and transaction characteristics in determining timber prices and provide guidance for landowners and forest managers when selecting sale strategies and management practices. Full article

Timber price dynamics are most often analysed using trends, seasonality, and classical measures of volatility, which describe the magnitude of fluctuations but only to a limited extent capture the temporal structure of the price-generating process. The aim of this study is to identify the structural complexity and long-term memory of quarterly prices of WC0 pine timber in the regional timber market in Poland. The analysis is based on nominal net prices (PLN/m³) from 16 forest districts of the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Kraków over the period 2005–2024, with reference to nationally averaged timber prices. Long-term dependence is assessed using the Hurst exponent estimated by detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) applied to log returns, while the geometric complexity of price trajectories is characterised by the fractal dimension and additionally validated using the Higuchi estimator. Cross-sectional results reveal substantial spatial heterogeneity in scaling properties, indicating the coexistence of persistent (trend-following) and corrective (anti-persistent) dynamics across forest districts. Rolling-window analysis (40 quarters) demonstrates temporal variability in price dynamics, with particularly pronounced shifts observed in 2019–2021. Cluster analysis based on time-varying Hurst exponent values identifies two groups of forest districts with distinct persistence trajectories, corresponding to more trend-dominated and corrective price dynamics. In contrast, national-level prices generally exhibit higher persistence than local prices, reflecting the effects of price aggregation. Overall, the results show that fractal analysis uncovers persistent spatial and temporal differences in timber price structures that remain invisible when relying solely on variance-based measures, with direct implications for the choice of planning horizons and timber sale strategies in regional markets. Full article

Pakistan’s forests cover only 4.2% of the national territory yet deliver critical ecosystem services that remain largely unaccounted for in policy and planning. This study provides the first harmonized, country-wide assessment of timber production and carbon sequestration services using Sentinel 2 imagery and standardized valuation frameworks. A cloud-free Sentinel 2 composite for 2024 was processed at 20 m resolution to map forest cover, revealing an extent of 40,784 km² concentrated below 2500 m a.s.l. Timber production was valued under two perspectives: forest-derived harvests (289,000 m³ yr⁻¹; ~140 million USD yr⁻¹) and total national supply (15 million m³ yr⁻¹; ~7.3 billion USD yr⁻¹), highlighting the marginal role of natural forests in Pakistan’s wood economy. Conversely, carbon sequestration emerges as a high magnitude regulating service: forests remove 2.53 million Mg CO₂ yr⁻¹, corresponding to 78 million USD yr⁻¹ at a carbon price of 31 USD t⁻¹ CO₂. Sensitivity analysis across canopy thresholds (30%, 50%, 75%) confirms the robustness of this pattern. Despite their limited spatial footprint, Pakistan’s forests provide ecosystem services whose economic and ecological significance far exceeds their area. Findings underscore the need for integrated forest-landscape governance, improved monitoring systems, and inclusion of regulating services in national planning and carbon-finance mechanisms. Full article

Understanding when and where to shift land from agriculture to forestry is essential for designing sustainable land use strategies that align with climate, biodiversity, and rural development goals. However, traditional profitability comparisons rely on long-term discounting, which is highly sensitive to assumptions and often misaligned with the shorter-term decision-making horizons that are relevant for policymakers. This study presents a deposit-based framework that interprets annual timber biomass growth as accumulating economic value, enabling direct, per-hectare comparisons with yearly agricultural profits. The framework integrates parcel-level spatial data, land quality indicators, national statistics, and expert inputs to produce high-resolution maps of annual profitability for both agriculture and forestry. Applied to the case of Latvia, the results show strong spatial variation in agricultural returns, particularly in low-quality areas where profits are marginal or negative. By contrast, forestry provides more stable, though modest, economic gains across a wide range of biophysical conditions. These insights help identify where afforestation becomes a financially viable land use alternative. The framework is designed to be transferable to other regions by substituting local data on land quality, prices and growth. It complements policy instruments such as performance-based CAP payments and afforestation support, offering a future-oriented tool for spatially explicit and economically grounded land use planning. Full article

Against the backdrop of accelerating restructuring in the global economy and trade landscape, understanding the evolutionary mechanisms of timber trade networks has become increasingly crucial. Utilizing cross-national timber trade data from 2000 to 2024, this study applies a Stochastic Actor-Oriented Model to analyze the dynamic evolution of the timber trade network by incorporating multidimensional factors, including trade costs, resource costs, network structure, and trade structure. The findings reveal that: (1) Endogenous network mechanisms—particularly the triadic closure effect—play a dominant role in the formation of trade relationships; (2) resource-rich countries exhibit an export expansion with import restriction phenomenon, actively expanding exports while restricting imports to safeguard resource sovereignty; (3) timber price alone insufficiently reshapes trade ties, whereas sustainable forest management significantly drives network dynamics; and (4) net exporters favor developed economies via market screening. Economic development asymmetrically moderates trade—boosting exports in net exporters while curbing imports in net importers. This study moves beyond traditional economic perspectives, uncovering the profound effects of structural embeddedness and strategic behavior in timber trade, and the findings extend the theoretical framework for resource-based product commerce and provide empirical foundations for formulating equitable and sustainable forestry trade policies. Full article

Blue carbon ecosystems, particularly mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes, play a crucial role in climate regulation by capturing and storing huge stocks of carbon. Together with supporting fisheries production, protecting shorelines from erosion, and supplying timber and non-timber products to communities, blue carbon ecosystems offer investment opportunities through carbon markets, thus supporting climate change mitigation and sustainable livelihoods. The current study assessed above- and below-ground biomass, sediment carbon, and the capacity of the blue carbon ecosystems in Kwale and Lamu Counties, Kenya, to capture and store carbon. This was followed by mapping of hotspot areas of degradation and the identification of investment opportunities in blue carbon credits. Carbon densities in mangroves were estimated at 560.23 Mg C ha⁻¹ in Lamu and 526.34 Mg C ha⁻¹ in Kwale, with sediments accounting for more than 70% of the stored carbon. In seagrass ecosystems, carbon densities measured 171.65 Mg C ha⁻¹ in Lamu and 220.29 Mg C ha⁻¹ in Kwale, values that surpass the national average but are consistent with global figures. Mangrove cover is declining at 0.49% yr⁻¹ in Kwale and 0.16% yr⁻¹ in Lamu, while seagrass losses in Lamu are 0.67% yr⁻¹, with a 0.34% yr⁻¹ increase in Kwale. Under a business-as-usual scenario, mangrove loss over 30 years will result in emissions of 4.43 million tCO₂e in Kwale and 18.96 million tCO₂e in Lamu. Effective interventions could enhance carbon sequestration from 0.12 to 3.86 million tCO₂e in Kwale and 0.62 to 19.52 million tCO₂e in Lamu. At the same period, seagrass losses in Lamu would emit 5.21 million tCO₂e. With a conservative carbon price of 20 USD per tCO₂e, projected annual revenues from mangrove carbon credits amount to USD 3.59 million in both Lamu and Kwale, and USD 216,040 for seagrass carbon credits in Lamu. These findings highlight the substantial climate and financial benefits of investing in the restoration and protection of the two ecosystems. Full article

Russia is an important supplier of timber to China, and the outbreak of the Russia–Ukraine conflict has had a significant impact on China’s timber imports. Based on the provincial-level timber import trade data in China from January 2020 to December 2024, three-dimensional panel data of time–province–export country were constructed, and the difference-in-differences model was used to analyze the impact of the Russia–Ukraine conflict on China’s timber imports from Russia. The results show that (1) the outbreak of the Russia–Ukraine conflict significantly reduced the volume of timber imports from Russia across Chinese provinces; (2) the Russia–Ukraine conflict adversely affected China’s timber imports from Russia by increasing price volatility and constraining Russia’s timber supply capacity; (3) based on the heterogeneity test results, the negative impact of the Russia–Ukraine conflict on timber imports from Russia was more pronounced in regions with a high degree of industrialization and greater dependence on imported timber; (4) the Russia–Ukraine conflict raised China’s timber import prices and intensified price volatility. Therefore, it is essential to enhance the overall risk management capacity of the timber industry supply chain by building a diversified timber supply system, strengthening the strategic reserves of timber resources, and improving price risk management instruments, in order to effectively respond to the impact of geopolitical conflicts. Full article

This study was carried out at 10 randomly selected fringe villages of Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR) in the Terai region of West Bengal, India through personal interviews with 100 randomly selected respondents. The study documented 102 non-timber forest products (NTFPs) that were utilized throughout the year. In the local weekly market, 28 NTFPs were found to be traded by the collectors. The study shows that without proper price mechanisms and marketing channels; the residents cannot obtain fair prices for their products. The study found only nine NTFPs that were prominently traded with the involvement of middlemen and traders along with the royalty imposed by the State Forest Department. The MSPs computed for these nine NTFPs were 25–200% higher than the prices the collectors were selling to the traders. The nationalization of NTFPs through MSPs will help their effective marketing, ensuring an adequate income for the collectors, which will lead to their sustainable harvest and conservation through participatory forest management. Introducing MSPs for NTFPs with an efficient procurement network can advance the economic status of the inhabitants. We recommend increasing the inhabitants’ capacity to collect, store, process, and market NTFPs with active policy, institutional, and infrastructural support. Full article

In this study, a continuation of the research on the influence of the bearing capacity proof on the fire resistance of an element’s cross-section is presented; however, in this particular case, we focus on elements made of homogeneous glued laminated timber. This influence is assessed by considering the variations in the cross-section’s area and the strength class, which are at the end of this paper, expressed through the actual material price. In order to obtain numerical results, similarly to the case of softwood, the limit states method and reduced cross-section method were used. The main aim of this research was to determine the actual price of homogeneous glued laminated timber if the limit state of load-bearing capacity is met and a certain fire resistance is required. By reviewing the available literature, a certain lack of practical solutions that might provide an appropriate answer to this question is evident. Namely, it is a common practice in the engineering community that when a certain limit state of load-bearing capacity is met in the case of homogeneous glued laminated timber material, an acceptable assumption of 30 min (R30) fire resistance class is automatically fulfilled when fire acts on three sides of the cross-section. However, it was shown that this is not entirely correct and always applicable. The main results of this study are precisely related to the above notion and clearly indicate the importance of the bearing capacity proofing procedure in the determination of the GLT fire resistance. Following the numerical results makes it possible to make decisions about the optimal selection of the element’s cross-section and its influence on the required fire resistance, even in the early design phase. The correlation of the load limit state capacity proof with the corresponding fire resistance functions makes it possible, for any stress state case, to obtain the optimal price for timber material as their intersection point. Full article

Hardwood has a variety of applications and can be used for low-value products, such as firewood, or for high-value applications, achieving significantly higher prices. Therefore, assessing the quality of raw material is essential for allocating the wood to the most suitable end use. The aim of this study was to explore the use of the photogrammetry technique to determine dimensional characteristics and perform remote visual grading of round oak timber stored at a log yard. The results of the visual classification were then compared with non-destructive acoustic measurements to assess their level of agreement. Based on the point cloud obtained from photogrammetry, logs were classified into three quality groups according to the European standard for round timber grading. The diameter measurements of the logs obtained through the photogrammetry survey were comparable to those taken manually, with an average difference of 0.46 cm and a mean absolute error of 2.1 cm compared to field measurements. However, the log lengths measured from the 3D survey were, on average, 5 cm shorter than those obtained using a measuring tape. The visual classification performed on the 3D reconstruction was based on the evaluation of log size, knots, buckles, and sweep, resulting in 39%, 27%, and 24% of the pieces being grouped into the high-, medium-, and low-quality classes, respectively. Acoustic measurements, performed using both resonance and time-of-flight (ToF) methods, were highly correlated with each other and successfully distinguished the three quality classes only when sweep was excluded from the classification criteria. When curvature was also considered as a parameter for log grading, acoustic velocity only differentiated the lowest quality class from the other two. Full article

Hainan Island has rich water resources and unique lake ecosystems. Organically connecting lakes and wetlands with forest ecosystems should be considered in order to strengthen biodiversity protection, form a continuous green corridor to promote species migration and gene exchange, and enhance the stability and resilience of the overall ecological system and maximize its benefits. The method of linear programming was used in this study to analyze the forest ecosystem on Hainan Island in China in order to provide a scientific basis for the integration, protection and management of lakes, wetlands and forests. This study points out that the ratio of the area of timber forest, protection forest, special-purpose forest and bamboo forest should be adjusted from the current 68:22.9:7.1:1.8 to 24:72.8:2.5:0.6. The average shadow price of the reasonable use of different forest lands on Hainan Island is 2512.46 CNY/ha and the optimal value of special-purpose forest is 4376.04 CNY/ha, rather than the current 6888.50 CNY/ha. This study also shows that the timber forest, special-purpose forest and bamboo forest on Hainan Island are short-term products, while protection forest, wood-fuel forest, economic forest, open forest land, shrub land, young afforested land and non-forest land are long-term products, for which it is not easy to obtain benefits in the short-term. A combination of long- and short-term forest ecological planning should be considered to maintain the various long-term benefits. This study finally proposes that Hainan Island should reduce its proportion of timber forest area; increase its proportion of protection forest area; focus on the integrated development of lakes, wetlands and forests and biodiversity conservation goals; and pay close attention to the adjustment of forest type structure in order to meet the needs of ecological province construction and sustainable development. Full article