Mangrove Forest Ecosystems: Present Status, Challenges, and Future Directions

A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Ecology and Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 January 2026 | Viewed by 3113

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Guest Editor
Tropical Coastal & Mangrove Consultants, Pakenham, VIC 3810, Australia
Interests: mangrove ecology; coastal biogeochemistry; energetics of tropical coastal ecosystems; marine environmental change; coastal ecology and biogeochemistry
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mangroves constitute a globally significant forest ecosystem that exists between land and sea, with associated problems and advantages being inherent to both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. While mangroves have had a troubled past and continue to have an uncertain present and future, they are heavily used for a wide array of ecosystem goods and services. They remain heavily deforested for timber and are used in housing and other forms of construction. Moreover, they are utilized for charcoal, food, and medicine. Mangrove ecosystems offer coastal protection and provide cultural values to hundreds of millions of indigenous populations throughout the subtropics and tropics. At broader scales, mangroves are negatively affected by climate change, especially by the rising of sea levels and by extreme weather events. Most recently, the role of mangroves has been considered in climate change mitigation and adaptation as they are the most carbon-rich ecosystems on Earth, sequestering disproportionate amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide into their sediments.

In this Special Issue, we are looking for papers dealing with present and future issues and perspectives with respect to mangrove forest science, conservation, and management. Topics include the current state of vital mangrove areas, means and modes of deforestation and degradation, blue carbon science, future projections (including modeling forecasts of mangrove forest area), new frontiers of science and management (such as advances in genomics and molecular biology), and conservation measures. We encourage studies from all fields, including experimental, theoretical, and numerical models; field and experimental studies; real case studies; and decision-making rules.

Dr. Daniel M. Alongi
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • climate change
  • conservation
  • management
  • blue carbon
  • genomics and genetics
  • deforestation and degradation

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 4032 KiB  
Article
The Geometry of Southern China’s Mangroves: Small and Elongated
by Lin Zhang, Yijuan Deng, Wenqing Wang and Mao Wang
Forests 2025, 16(2), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020212 - 23 Jan 2025
Viewed by 766
Abstract
Mangrove wetlands are naturally divided into habitat patches by tidal creeks, with patch edges highly vulnerable to human activities and biological invasions, making them critical areas for mangrove degradation. Understanding the geometrical characteristics of these patches is essential for mangrove management in the [...] Read more.
Mangrove wetlands are naturally divided into habitat patches by tidal creeks, with patch edges highly vulnerable to human activities and biological invasions, making them critical areas for mangrove degradation. Understanding the geometrical characteristics of these patches is essential for mangrove management in the Anthropocene, yet their exploration remains limited. Using a high-resolution (2 m) mangrove distribution dataset from 2018, we analyzed the patch structure of mangroves in southern China. This study revealed predominantly small and elongated patches, with an average area of 0.044 km2 and a median of 0.011 km2 across 5857 patches. About 65% of patches had a major-axis length over twice their minor-axis length. The patch number and area peaked between 19° N and 22° N. The patch number and area peaked between 19° N and 22° N. In the 0.1° × 0.1° latitudinal-longitudinal grid, the maximum mangrove area was 9.03 km2, consisting of 192 patches. Additionally, the patch composition and geometric characteristics differed significantly among the existing reserves. These findings highlight the need to prioritize the patch geometry in management strategies, especially in regions with numerous small patches prone to degradation and invasion. Additionally, this study underscores a critical research gap: the ecological impacts of mangrove fragmentation on biodiversity and ecosystem services remain poorly understood. Future research should focus on how the patch structure and landscape configuration influence ecological processes in mangrove wetlands. Full article
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Review

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24 pages, 1640 KiB  
Review
A Review of Applying Drones and Remote Sensing Technology in Mangrove Ecology
by Wenjie Xu, Xiaoguang Ouyang, Xi Xiao, Yiguo Hong, Yuan Zhang, Zhihao Xu, Bong-Oh Kwon and Zhifeng Yang
Forests 2025, 16(6), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16060870 - 22 May 2025
Viewed by 346
Abstract
: Mangrove forests are one of the ecosystems with the richest biodiversity and the highest functional value of ecosystem services in the world. For mangrove research, it is particularly important to facilitate mangrove mapping, plant species classification, biomass, and carbon sink estimation using [...] Read more.
: Mangrove forests are one of the ecosystems with the richest biodiversity and the highest functional value of ecosystem services in the world. For mangrove research, it is particularly important to facilitate mangrove mapping, plant species classification, biomass, and carbon sink estimation using remote sensing technologies. Recently, more and more studies have combined unmanned aerial vehicles and remote sensing technology to estimate plant traits and the biomass of mangrove forests. Various multispectral and hyperspectral data are used to establish various vegetation indices for plant classification, and data models for biomass estimation and carbon sink calculation. This study systematically reviews the use of remote sensing and unmanned aerial vehicles in mangrove studies during the past three decades based on 2424 peer-reviewed papers. By synthesizing these studies, we identify the pros and cons of different indices and models developed from remote sensing technologies by sorting out past cases. Specifically, we review the use of remote sensing technologies in mapping the past and present area, plant species composition, and biomass of mangrove forests and examine the threats to the degradation of mangrove forests. Our findings reveal that there is increasing integration of machine learning and remote sensing to facilitate mangrove mapping and species identification. Moreover, multiple sources of remote sensing data tend to be combined to improve species classification accuracy and enhance the precision of mangrove biomass estimates when integrated with field-based data. Full article
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29 pages, 4155 KiB  
Review
Global Meta-Analysis of Mangrove Primary Production: Implications for Carbon Cycling in Mangrove and Other Coastal Ecosystems
by Daniel M. Alongi
Forests 2025, 16(5), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050747 - 27 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1219
Abstract
Mangrove forests are among the most productive vascular plants on Earth. The gross (GPP) and aboveground forest net primary production (ANPP) correlate positively with precipitation. ANPP also correlates inversely with porewater salinity. The main drivers of the forest primary production are the porewater [...] Read more.
Mangrove forests are among the most productive vascular plants on Earth. The gross (GPP) and aboveground forest net primary production (ANPP) correlate positively with precipitation. ANPP also correlates inversely with porewater salinity. The main drivers of the forest primary production are the porewater salinity, rainfall, tidal inundation frequency, light intensity, humidity, species age and composition, temperature, nutrient availability, disturbance history, and geomorphological setting. Wood production correlates positively with temperature and rainfall, with rates comparable to tropical humid forests. Litterfall accounts for 55% of the NPP which is greater than previous estimates. The fine root production is highest in deltas and estuaries and lowest in carbonate and open-ocean settings. The GPP and NPP exhibit large methodological and regional differences, but mangroves are several times more productive than other coastal blue carbon habitats, excluding macroalgal beds. Mangroves contribute 4 to 28% of coastal blue carbon fluxes. The mean and median canopy respiration equate to 1.7 and 2.7 g C m−2 d−1, respectively, which is higher than previous estimates. Mangrove ecosystem carbon fluxes are currently in balance. However, the global mangrove GPP has increased from 2001 to 2020 and is forecast to continue increasing to at least 2100 due to the strong fertilization effect of rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Full article
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