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Many insect and other arthropod species are maintained as non-model laboratory stocks and are used for fundamental and applied studies. Their biology may be affected by symbionts, such as Wolbachia and Spiroplasma. Thirty stocks of different insect species that are maintained at the Laboratory of biological control of phytophagous and phytopathogens in the Siberian Federal Scientific Centre of Agro-BioTechnologies were screened to find Spiroplasma/Wolbachia–host associations. We used 16S rDNA and fusA loci for Spiroplasma characterization and five MLST genes for Wolbachia. Seven out of thirty stocks harbored symbionts. Five stocks were infected with only Wolbachia, one with only Spiroplasma, and one with both symbionts. Two stocks were occasionally characterized by false-positive signals of Spiroplasma infection that were explained by contamination from food sources, viz. infected insects. Five Wolbachia isolates belonged to supergroup B and one to supergroup A. Only the MLST haplotype of Nabis ferus was previously known (ST-522), while the other haplotypes contained new alleles. One Spiroplasma isolate was clustered in the Ixodetis clade and another was basal to the Apis clade. We noted the importance of non-model insects for fundamental studies of host–symbiont interactions and their significance for applied research and practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Behavior and Pathology)

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26 pages, 2347 KB

Open AccessReview

Hydrogels for Bone Regeneration: Properties, Additives, Preclinical and Clinical Applications

by Nesya Graupe, Saliha Ahmad, Ahmad Zia, Michael Hadjiargyrou and Azhar Ilyas

Gels 2025, 11(11), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11110914 (registering DOI) - 16 Nov 2025

Abstract

Severe bone loss from trauma, fractures, tumor resections, and disease are devastating injuries that do not heal completely without external, and most of the time surgical, interventions. Although surgical interventions such as bone grafts and metal prostheses are commonly employed, these conventional approaches present several limitations, including limited donors, risks of immune rejection and postoperative inflammation, and significant pain experienced by both donors and recipients. Hydrogels offer a promising alternative because of their controllable mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and structural resemblance to the extracellular matrix. In addition, hydrogels can be modified with substances such as growth factors, hormones, and drugs to facilitate accelerated bone repair. This review summarizes the recent advances in hydrogel development for bone repair, their structural design, biological functionality, and preclinical and clinical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Hydrogels for Biomedical Application (2nd Edition))

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17 pages, 931 KB

Open AccessReview

The Effect of Maternal Stress on 11beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Activity During Pregnancy: Evidence for Potential Pregnancy Complications and Consequences on Fetal Development and Metabolism

by Polina Pavli, George Mastorakos, Makarios Eleftheriades and Georgios Valsamakis

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(22), 11071; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262211071 (registering DOI) - 16 Nov 2025

Abstract

Τhe intrauterine environment has a strong connection with the growing fetus and possible effects that can continue up to adulthood. Currently, stress is conceptualized as a modern teratogen. The overwhelming majority of studies indicate that maternal stress during pregnancy may have effects on pregnancy outcomes and fetal development, with long-lasting consequences on child and adult vulnerability to disease. Glucocorticoids are essential for regulating fetal development, growth, and metabolism. The two isoforms of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzyme (11β-HSD) mediate and regulate glucocorticoid actions and biological activity. It has not yet been fully elucidated whether maternal stress during pregnancy affects 11β-HSD isoenzyme activity and expression and results in possible adverse effects on fetal development, metabolism, and pregnancy outcomes. This review examines a possible pathophysiological mechanism by which maternal stress during pregnancy affects placental 11β-HSD isoenzyme activity, thereby causing adverse effects on the physiological status of pregnancy, fetal development, and metabolism. Furthermore, the main outcome of the review is the following: chronic and acute maternal stress during pregnancy affects the activity and the expression of placental 11β-HSD isoenzymes and has possible subsequent unfavorable results on preeclampsia, preterm birth, and fetuses with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) or small for gestational age (SGA) fetuses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endocrinology of Pregnancy)

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26 pages, 659 KB

Open AccessReview

Towards a Research Programme Aiming at Causes and Consequences of Reticulate Evolution

by Christoph Oberprieler

Biology 2025, 14(11), 1601; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14111601 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Evolution is reticulate. Reticulation increases diversity and complexity on the different levels of the evolutionary hierarchy. In addition to the tendency for diversity and complexity to increase in unchecked evolutionary systems by ongoing divergence (‘Zero-Force Evolutionary Law’, ‘Biology’s First Law’), reticulate evolution, therefore, acts as a second mechanism for the establishment of evolutionary novelty and the rise in biodiversity and biocomplexity (‘Biology’s Second Law’). This provides the raw material for subsequent diversity-confining drift and selection processes. In order to fully appreciate reticulation processes as part of an updated paradigm of evolutionary biology, a research programme on the topic should encompass the identification of the fundamental evolutionary entities as vertices and the study of the relationships among these vertices as edges in the resulting network architectures. Additionally, along with surveys on the underlying determinants, this will lead to the study of emergent boundary conditions for reticulations and for the porosity of evolutionary entities. Finally, the programme should address the question whether there are equilibrium conditions between the complete fusion and complete isolation of evolutionary entities (‘Goldilocks Zones’) that foster reticulate evolution. As tools in this research programme, machine learning and modelling approaches, along with methods in the field of network reconstruction, transcriptomics, epigenetics, and karyology, are identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Evolutionary Biology)

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32 pages, 1752 KB

Open AccessReview

Structure Meets Function: Dissecting Fucoxanthin’s Bioactive Architecture

by Patrícia Nogueira, Victória Bombarda-Rocha, Rita Tavares-Henriques, Mariana Carneiro, Emília Sousa, Jorge Gonçalves and Paula Fresco

Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(11), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23110440 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Fucoxanthin (Fx), a marine xanthophyll carotenoid, has attracted considerable scientific attention due to its wide-ranging biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and anticancer effects. Despite its substantial therapeutic potential, the clinical application of Fx and its derivatives remains constrained by their structural complexity, low chemical stability, and limited bioavailability. This review offers a thorough and up-to-date overview of Fx, encompassing its primary natural sources, the metabolic biotransformation to fucoxanthinol (FxOH) and amarouciaxanthin A—metabolites whose bioactive properties significantly contribute to the observed in vivo effects—and the molecular mechanisms underlying the biological activities of Fx and its metabolites, with emphasis on their modulation of key intracellular signalling pathways involved in inflammation, lipid metabolism, and cell proliferation. Furthermore, it explores how targeted structural modifications may enhance the pharmacokinetic profiles and expand the therapeutic potential of Fx-based compounds, while highlighting promising strategies for their optimisation. By integrating insights from pharmacology, biochemistry, and synthetic chemistry, this work aims to guide future efforts in the rational design of marine-derived bioactive agents and underscores the value of marine biodiversity in therapeutic innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids and Potential Therapeutic Benefits)

21 pages, 2955 KB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromorphic Control of Robotic Systems with Numerical Simulations

by Abhaya Pal Singh and Antonio Candea Leite

Robotics 2025, 14(11), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics14110166 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

In this paper, we considered potential benefits of the neuromorphic control technique for solving specific challenges in robotic control. Developing a neuromorphic control system for a robot involves simulating the architecture and dynamics of biological neurons to perform control tasks. This differs from typical control techniques and frequently employs spiking neural networks (SNNs). SNNs are more closely related to our brains than conventional neural networks, as they incorporate temporal dynamics. Biological neurons transmit information using spikes. Neurons do not fire in each cycle, but rather when the membrane potential reaches a predetermined threshold, as in a binary system. When a neuron fires, it transmits a signal to the synapse. The control strategy presented in this paper is based on the Leaky Integrated-and-Fire (LIF) and Generalized Integrate-and-Fire (GIF) neuron models. We designed neuromorphic control systems and utilized three robotic systems as examples. Numerical simulations were used to demonstrate the stability, robustness, and effectiveness of the neuromorphic robot control system design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI for Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses)

37 pages, 3646 KB

Open AccessReview

Fascinating Frontier, Nanoarchitectonics, as Method for Everything in Materials Science

by Katsuhiko Ariga

Materials 2025, 18(22), 5196; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18225196 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Methodological fusion of materials chemistry, which enables us to create materials, with nanotechnology, which enables us to control nanostructures, could enable us to create advanced functional materials with well controlled nanostructures. Positioned as a post-nanotechnology concept, nanoarchitectonics will enable this purpose. This review paper highlights the broad scope of applications of the new concept of nanoarchitectonics, selecting and discussing recent papers that contain the term ‘nanoarchitectonics’ in their titles. Topics include controls of dopant atoms in solid electrolytes, transforming the framework of carbon materials, single-atom catalysts, nanorobots and microrobots, functional nanoparticles, nanotubular materials, 2D-organic nanosheets and MXene nanosheets, nanosheet assemblies, nitrogen-doped carbon, nanoporous and mesoporous materials, nanozymes, polymeric materials, covalent organic frameworks, vesicle structures from synthetic polymers, chirality- and topology-controlled structures, chiral helices, Langmuir monolayers, LB films, LbL assembly, nanocellulose, DNA, peptides bacterial cell components, biomimetic nanoparticles, lipid membranes of protocells, organization of living cells, and the encapsulation of living cells with exogenous substances. Not limited to these examples selected in this review article, the concept of nanoarchitectonics is applicable to diverse materials systems. Nanoarchitectonics represents a conceptual framework for creating materials at all levels and can be likened to a method for everything in materials science. Developing technology that can universally create materials with unexpected functions could represent the final frontier of materials science. Nanoarchitectonics will play a significant part in achieving this final frontier in materials science. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanoarchitectonics in Materials Science, Second Edition)

14 pages, 2429 KB

Open AccessArticle

Testing a Sustainable Strategy Against Poultry Helminth Stages Developing in the Soil

by Jorge Alexander León, Gustavo Pérez-Anzúrez, Inês Abreu Ramos, Carlos Emiliano Magos Amado, David Boso Dafonte, João Lozano, José Ángel Hernández Malagón, Cristiana Cazapal-Monteiro, Rodrigo Bonilla, Jaime Sanchís, Adolfo Paz-Silva, Rita Sánchez-Andrade, Luís Manuel Madeira de Carvalho and María Sol Arias

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1168; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111168 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Free-ranging hens are at risk of infection by parasites characterized by certain stages that develop in the soil until attaining the infective phase. To analyze the usefulness of a biological control strategy of helminths affecting pasturing hens, fecal samples containing eggs of the helminths Ascaridia galli and Capillaria spp. were collected and then homogenized with an electric mixer. A total of 64 small areas were established by placing wooden frames (15 × 40 × 30 cm) on the ground and then adding approximately 100 g of a fecal mixture (per area). Four batches of 16 areas were considered: G1, sprayed with 2 × 10⁶ spores of the parasitophagous fungus Mucor circinelloides (day 0) at 0.5 L/m² (=600 mL/area); G2, sprayed with spores twice (every two weeks); G3, sprayed four times (every week); and Control, sprayed weekly with water. After a four-week period, the egg viability reduced for ascarids and capillarids (26% and 27%, respectively) in the control group; 64% and 79% in G1; 71% and 82% in G2; and 79% and 80% in G3. It was concluded that spraying with fungal spores provides a very useful tool for preventing infection by helminths on free-range poultry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)

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20 pages, 1861 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Exploratory Study of the Nutritional Composition and Caco-2 Safety Assessment of Elche Date Flour and Its Green Hydroethanolic Extracts

by Katarzyna Dawidowicz, Sergio Martinez-Terol, Estrella Sayas-Barberá, José Ángel Pérez-Álvarez, Francisco J. Marti-Quijal, Patricia Roig and Juan Manuel Castagnini

Foods 2025, 14(22), 3908; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14223908 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

The Elche palm grove (Spain) produces large surpluses of fresh date fruits due to low industrial processing and strict market standards. This exploratory study assessed the potential of these fruits as sustainable ingredients through the production of freeze-dried date flour and its green hydroethanolic extracts. Computer vision analysis of nine local cultivars (D1–D9) revealed broad chromatic and phenotypic diversity. Mineral and heavy metal analyses in the flour indicated high nutritional value and overall safety: D8 was richest in Mg (1.23 mg/g), P (0.78 mg/g), Fe (15.32 mg/kg), Zn (9.20 mg/kg), Cu (5.22 mg/kg), and Se (68 µg/kg), while D4 showed the highest K (22.1 mg/g) and D1 the highest Ca (1.94 mg/g). Lead and cadmium were highest in D8 and arsenic in D1, although all values remained within the regulatory limits. Hydroethanolic extracts exhibited remarkable compositional variability: D4 and D5 had the greatest carbohydrates (737.70 ± 55.79 mg/g DM), D8 and D9 the highest proteins (up to 40.31 ± 1.33 mg/g DM), and D2 and D8 the highest carotenoids (up to 36.44 ± 1.55 μg/g DM). D8 also showed the highest phenolics (13.98 ± 2.93 mg GAE/g DM) and antioxidant capacity. Cytotoxicity assays in Caco-2 cells showed no significant effects up to 1000 µg/mL. These preliminary findings suggest that green-extracted date fractions may combine nutritional richness, antioxidant potential, and biological safety, providing a basis for future studies on their application as natural and sustainable food ingredients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutritional and Toxicological Characterization of Bioactive Compounds from Foods)

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15 pages, 2043 KB

Open AccessReview

Epigenetic and Post-Translational Regulation of Schlafen Family Expression and Their Differential Methods of Regulating Proteins

by Odele Rajpathy and Emilie E. Vomhof-DeKrey

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(22), 11058; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262211058 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Schlafen (SLFN) proteins are a unique and emerging yet incompletely understood family that have primarily been investigated for their putative roles in immunological responses, cell proliferation, and non-malignant cell differentiation. Increasingly, SLFNs have been implicated in diverse biological and pathological contexts, including cancers, viral replication, embryonic lethality, meiotic drive, and inflammatory bowel diseases, where they may be either genetically upregulated or downregulated. In recent years, novel insights into their functional similarities and distinctive particularities have intensified interest in this gene family. This review critically evaluates the biology of SLFN proteins with a specific focus on the epigenetic regulation of their expression and the differential methods by which they regulate downstream proteins. Evidence indicates that SLFNs act not only as regulators of transcription but also as modulators of gene expression through post-transcriptional modifications and epigenetic mechanisms, which demonstrate their multifaceted and context-dependent activity across disease models. By consolidating these findings, this review brings to light the physiological and pathological significance of SLFNs and identifies key gaps in understanding their epigenetic control and mechanistic diversity, thereby offering directions for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic and Epigenetic Analyses in Cancer)

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16 pages, 1304 KB

Open AccessArticle

Causal Graphical Model of Bacterial Vaginosis in Pregnant Women

by Maricela García-Avalos, Juana Canul-Reich, Lil María Xibai Rodríguez-Henríquez and Erick Natividad De la Cruz-Hernández

Diseases 2025, 13(11), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases13110375 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: This study developed a Causal Graphical Model (CGM) to analyze Bacterial Vaginosis (BV), a condition caused by an imbalance in the vaginal microbiota, whose bacterial composition varies among women. While previous studies used variable selection, clustering, and association rules to identify BV-associated bacteria, these approaches lack visual tools to explore causal relationships and determine which are the most relevant. In contrast, the CGM generated in this study allows visualization of associated bacteria and their causal links, thereby identifying those most influential. Methods: Path Analysis (PA), a statistical structural equation modeling method, was used to construct the CGM, with emphasis on observable variables and to assess direct and indirect effects through correlations and covariances. PA was applied to an already-collected third-party dataset related to BV diagnosis, consisting of data from 132 pregnant women between 4 and 24 weeks of gestation. Results: The CGM, built using a theoretical model based on the Spearman correlation matrix, was validated through statistical metrics and by a clinical-biological expert. The resultant model highlights bacteria influencing BV diagnosis, specifically Mycoplasma hominis (Mh), Atopobium vaginae (Av), Gardnerella vaginalis (Gv), Megasphaera Type 1 (MT1), and Bacteria Associated with Bacterial Vaginosis Type 2 (BVAB2). Among them, MT1 and BVAB2 showed the strongest association with BV. Conclusions: The CGM effectively identifies causal associations among bacteria related to BV. Full article

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20 pages, 4546 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Multi-Omics Analysis Identifies Oxeiptosis-Related Biomarkers in Diabetic Retinopathy

by Jiaoyu Deng, Pengfei Ge, Ying Gao, Hong-Ying Li, Yifan Lin, Yangyang Lu, Haiyue Xie, Dianbo Xu, Ping Xie and Zizhong Hu

Biomedicines 2025, 13(11), 2789; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13112789 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: Diabetic retinopathy (DR), a leading cause of blindness, lacks early biomarkers and mechanism-targeted therapies. While oxidative stress drives DR pathogenesis, the role of oxeiptosis—a reactive oxygen species-induced, caspase-independent cell death pathway—remains largely unexplored. Methods: We integrated transcriptomic profiling (GSE221521: 69 DR vs. 50 controls), two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) using blood cis-eQTLs (GTEx) as instruments and DR GWAS (FinnGen R12) as outcome, machine learning-based feature selection (SVM-RFE and Boruta algorithms), and single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) analysis (GSE165784). Functional enrichment, immune deconvolution (CIBERSORT), and diagnostic nomogram construction were performed. We validated the key genes using human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (hRMECs) treated with high glucose (30 mM). Results: Oxeiptosis scores were elevated in DR blood samples (p < 0.001). MR analysis identified five putative causal genes: CASP2 (OR = 1.067), PLEC (OR = 1.035) and FBN2 (OR = 1.016) as risk factors, and CYP27A1 (OR = 0.960) and GPD2 (OR = 0.958) as protective factors. SVM-RFE and Boruta algorithms confirmed CASP2 and PLEC as hub genes. A nomogram incorporating both genes achieved robust DR prediction (AUC = 0.811). Functional analysis associated these genes with innate immune activation and extracellular matrix reorganization. Single-cell transcriptomics revealed PLEC was markedly overexpressed in disease-relevant cells (fibroblasts, endothelial cells), whereas CASP2 exhibited a distinct pattern, with notable enrichment in retinal CD8+ T cells. Both genes were associated with a pro-inflammatory shift in the immune landscape. Their upregulation was validated in independent datasets and high-glucose-stressed retinal cells. Conclusions: This study establishes an integrated multi-omics framework implicating oxeiptosis-related pathways in DR and nominates CASP2 and PLEC as putatively causal, biologically relevant candidate biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews in Ophthalmology)

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21 pages, 668 KB

Open AccessReview

Marine-Derived Natural Substances with Anticholinesterase Activity

by Daniela Dimitrova, Gabriela Kehayova, Simeonka Dimitrova and Stela Dragomanova

Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(11), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23110439 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease continues to be one of the most urgent neurodegenerative conditions, with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors serving as a fundamental component of contemporary treatment approaches. Growing evidence underscores that marine ecosystems are a rich source of structurally varied and biologically active natural products exhibiting anticholinesterase properties. This review presents a thorough synthesis of marine-derived metabolites—including those sourced from bacteria, fungi, sponges, algae, and other marine life—that demonstrate inhibitory effects against AChE and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). Numerous compounds, such as meroterpenoids, alkaloids, peptides, and phlorotannins, not only show nanomolar to micromolar inhibitory activity but also reveal additional neuroprotective characteristics, including antioxidant effects, anti-amyloid properties, and modulation of neuronal survival pathways. Despite these encouraging findings, the transition to clinical applications is hindered by a lack of comprehensive pharmacokinetic, toxicity, and long-term efficacy studies. The structural variety of marine metabolites provides valuable frameworks for the development of next-generation cholinesterase inhibitors. Further interdisciplinary research is essential to enhance their therapeutic potential and facilitate their incorporation into strategies for addressing Alzheimer’s disease and related conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Marine Pharmacology)

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17 pages, 12118 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrative Taxonomy of Polynema (Doriclytus) (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) from Oriental China: Three New Species and Five New Records Revealed by Morphological and Molecular Analyses

by Yanyan Liu, Serguei V. Triapitsyn, Dan Zhang, Jinling Wang and Zhulidezi Aishan

Insects 2025, 16(11), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16111166 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Polynema Haliday, 1833 (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae), one of the most species-rich genera in the family, comprises egg parasitoids with diverse hosts across multiple insect orders, some serving as biological control agents for agricultural and forestry pests. The subgenus Polynema (Doriclytus Foerster, 1847), characterized by pronounced morphological conservatism, has historical taxonomic challenges due to reliance on external morphological characteristics. This study employed an integrative taxonomic approach, combining morphological and molecular analyses, to investigate P. (Doriclytus) diversity in the Oriental region of China. Eight species were identified, including three new species—P. (Doriclytus) acutum Wang & Aishan, sp. nov., P. (Doriclytus) daliense Wang & Aishan, sp. nov., and P. (Doriclytus) longicornia Wang & Aishan, sp. nov.—and five species newly recorded from China: P. (Doriclytus) alalatum Rehmat & Anis, 2016, P. (Doriclytus) bicolorigastra Rehmat & Anis, 2016, P. (Doriclytus) dhenkunde Mani & Saraswat, 1973, P. (Doriclytus) dunense Hayat & Anis, 1999, and P. (Doriclytus) tyakshiense Irfan & Anis, 2023. Comprehensive morphological descriptions and diagnostic illustrations are provided for all new taxa, with key diagnostic features detailed for the newly recorded species. Molecular analysis of COI sequences using both the Assemble Species by Automatic Partitioning (ASAP) and Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC) models yielded congruent species delimitation results, with genetic distances between delimited species showing maximum intraspecific divergence of 1.51% and interspecific divergences of 3–12% within the 470 bp COI barcode region. The deposition of 32 novel COI sequences in GenBank significantly enhances molecular resources for Mymaridae systematics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Systematics, Phylogeny and Evolution)

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25 pages, 3658 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of High-Sensitivity SERS-Active Photonic Crystal Fiber Sensors for Chemical and Biological Detection

by Jiaying Luo, Jia Sun, Huacai Chen, Chunliu Zhao and Manping Ye

Sensors 2025, 25(22), 6982; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25226982 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

This review critically surveys the emerging integration of Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) with photonic-crystal fibers (PCFs) for chemical and biological detection, an area still scarce in the literature. SERS exploits electromagnetic and chemical enhancement to overcome the intrinsic weakness of Raman scattering, while PCF offers low transmission loss and a strong evanescent field that further amplify the signal. The structural designs of PCF, encompassing solid-core and hollow-core variants, are discussed and their respective advantages in different sensing scenarios are presented. Applications in chemical detection, biomedicine, and explosive identification are detailed, demonstrating the versatility and potential of PCF-SERS sensors. Future efforts will focus on robust PCF geometries that guarantee stable and reproducible signals, AI-driven spectral algorithms, hybrid fibre architectures and scalable manufacturing. These advances are expected to translate PCF-SERS from bench-top demonstrations to routine deployment in environmental monitoring, clinical diagnostics and food-safety control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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